Propaganda: History, Techniques, and Global Influence

The Notion of Propaganda

History is a rather difficult subject to address. It is the result of forces and beliefs, of actions and people's attitudes, of societies and their interactions. However, the element that has most shaped history is the political system and politicians. They are the actual means through which the voice of the people is put into action. At times, the conscience of the people can be influenced in such a manner as to express more the politicians' desires rather than the reverse. Throughout the history of the twentieth century in particular, the main tool used to influence democratic opinion has been propaganda. Although the term has been associated especially with Nazi and communist regimes, it has been used in many other contexts to express more or less the same thing, sometimes with a democratic twist.

In order to have a comprehensive view of the meaning of propaganda in international relations, it is important to consider the actual history of the concept. Propaganda has been used as a means of influencing public opinion or the masses since the start of the twentieth century. The most important period for this concept is indeed the era of Nazi and communist propaganda, with all the national elements its development and assimilation entailed. From the perspective of current world events, it can easily be stated that propaganda is still widely used today. Although not in the same sense as historically understood, the United States has been accused — or at least viewed — as one of the countries that uses propaganda to spread a certain set of values in different parts of the world as well as at home. This paper addresses precisely these issues, from the start of the century up to the current situation in world affairs.

The basic idea about propaganda concerns the nature of the term itself. It is widely believed that the instruments of this process aim at creating a certain state of mind through which society can be manipulated. As one scholar put it, "a favorable public opinion is gradually built up by propaganda of all kinds and by education. It is essentially a process of systematic indoctrination" (Hertzler, 1939). In most situations, propaganda carries a negative connotation. However, there are several identifiable elements that constitute the entire process of propaganda.

Key Propaganda Techniques

The Institute for Propaganda Analysis identified in 1938 several techniques that can be recognized as part of the propaganda process. One important element is the "bandwagon" technique. It is not simply a tool used for propagandistic aims, but one that overlaps with other fields such as advertising (Propaganda Techniques, n.d.). The actual meaning of this technique involves "an appeal to the subject to follow the crowd, to join in because others are doing so as well. Bandwagon propaganda is, essentially, trying to convince the subject that one side is the winning side, because more people have joined it. The subject is meant to believe that since so many people have joined, that victory is inevitable and defeat impossible. Since the average person always wants to be on the winning side, he or she is compelled to join in" (Propaganda Techniques, n.d.). This was one of the most important aspects of propaganda's use. It appeals to the individual as part of a mass of people who must decide on the political future of a nation, or on questions of war and peace. By appealing to the psychology of the individual, the propagandistic mechanism seeks to convince the individual and, ultimately, the crowd.

Another major propaganda technique is "card stacking." More precisely, "it involves only presenting information that is positive to an idea or proposal and omitting information contrary to it" (Propaganda Techniques, n.d.). In the early years of political manipulation, society was largely unaware of the possibility that a different, hidden side of a story might exist. Politicians often concealed the truth from the public, either because it was an easier way of framing certain events or simply to influence public opinion favorably. In either case, this was achieved by omitting the actual truth, or parts of it. Although considered an immoral choice, it was seldom a reason for open revolt against the system.

The use of "glittering generalities" is yet another element of the propaganda process. It involves the use of ideas or words that carry a positive connotation for the audience. Similar to card stacking, it exploits human psychology to shape opinion. It fails to present facts as they are and instead focuses on describing reality — or selective parts of it — in language that appeals to positive human values and norms.

The Institute for Propaganda Analysis also identified the following as propaganda techniques: the "lesser of two evils," name calling, pinpointing the enemy, plain-folk propaganda, stereotyping, testimonials, and transfer (Propaganda Techniques, n.d.). All of these stimulate individuals to form what feels like a personal opinion on the events presented to them. Despite the fact that this opinion is formed under the pressure of induced beliefs or manipulated truths, people come to genuinely identify with the views shaped through the propagandistic process. This can explain the widespread popular support for various causes of the twentieth century that used propaganda to rally backing for public movements, wars, peace initiatives, and social or international activities. That support derives from a self-acquired conviction in beliefs that were, in fact, shaped by these propagandistic techniques.

Early Uses of Propaganda

Although the techniques of propaganda have been deployed throughout history in wide and varied situations, the twentieth century saw them used in a concerted and systematic manner. It is generally considered, however, that the first signs of propaganda appear in the Old Testament. "The books of the Prophets are essentially works of propaganda. The Prophet sees that his fellow countrymen (or in the case of Jonah the citizens of a foreign country, Nineveh) are worshipping false Gods or have given themselves over to evil practices; and he calls upon them, with all the eloquence at his disposal, and with the deliberate use of threats (of the divine wrath to come) to reform and return to worship of the true God" (Fraser, 1957, 15). In this case, the Prophet used no actual evidence to convince the people, but rather appealed to their collective mentality. Masses are easier to control than individuals — a premise that underpinned the evolution of religious belief and the spread of Christianity.

The history of propaganda is more clearly identifiable in the twentieth century, when the collective mentality was assigned a far more important role. A new awareness of the power of public opinion emerged, and the focus of political actors shifted from governance alone toward the public and the possible means of influencing it.

One of the first manifestations of propaganda in the twentieth century appeared in the feminist movements at the beginning of the century. The term was used "in connection with the unusual and often violent methods used by the militant suffragettes to advertise the cause of women's suffrage. Before that time, propaganda was rather a learned word and moved almost exclusively in literary circles" (Jepson, n.d.). The aim of the propaganda used at this time was to rally support for women's right to vote. The means employed were not always consistent with the democratic process, but at the time, the actual goal of the propaganda mattered more than the means used to achieve it. The passion for the beliefs held by feminist activists was so intense that the methods were rarely questioned.

Propaganda in the World Wars

One of the most important eras in the history of propaganda began with the First World War. The war was one of the least expected events in history from a certain point of view, coming after a period of relatively stable economic growth, yet also of great social upheaval and unrest. At this moment, politicians became truly aware of the power public opinion holds over decisions about war, and its capacity to sustain or undermine the war effort. Because the governments of the belligerent countries needed public support for the waging of war, they acted in a propagandistic manner. "Under the name of propaganda or 'public information' (…) reports of reverses were suppressed or toned down. Victories were magnified. Everything was done, directly or indirectly, to keep people at home cheerful, confident, determined, industrious and united. Doubt and criticism, however justified, were discouraged or suppressed, and even in countries with a strong democratic tradition, the Press worked loyally with the government in galvanizing the national effort, in glorifying the national cause, and in discrediting the aims and achievements of the enemy" (Jepson, n.d.). The entire array of techniques specific to the propagandistic process was thus deployed. The limited amount of accurate information allowed politicians to take decisions in their own name and shielded them from public scrutiny.

Throughout the First World War, alliances were made and broken, and agreements were reached and disregarded — a course of events that would not have been possible without a public opinion that was constantly misinformed. Woodrow Wilson's call for open diplomacy came, in part, as a response to the need for greater transparency toward the people. Public opinion represents one of the most efficient mechanisms of political accountability: it can sanction politicians or elect them as representatives. Aware of this, the promoters of propaganda sought to control this capacity and used every means available to construct a distorted image of surrounding reality.

References

Buncombe, Andrew. (2006). "The U.S. propaganda machine: Oh, what a lovely war." The Independent. Accessed 29 May 2008.

Fraser, Lindley. Propaganda. London: Oxford University Press, 1957.

Herb, Guntram Henrik. (1997). Under the Map of Germany: Nationalism and Propaganda, 1918–1945. London: Routledge.

Hertzler, J.O. (1939). "The Typical Life Cycle of Dictatorships." Social Forces, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 303–309.

Jepson, R.W. (n.d.). Clear Thinking. [Available online]. Accessed 29 May 2008.

Kissinger, Henry. (1995). Diplomacy. London: Simon & Schuster.

Propaganda Techniques. (n.d.). Accessed 29 May 2008.