Racism, Islamophobia, and Immigration in a Globalized World

Introduction: Race and Bigotry in a Globalized World

This literature review examines the problem of racism and bigotry that continues to exist not just in the United States but all over the world. As nationalism surges in places like the U.S., the UK, Hungary, Italy, Russia, and China, the problem of race and immigration has come to the forefront of the global stage. Some groups have tried to rise above instances of racism — and one group in particular is the Muslim population in the West, which experienced persecution in the wake of 9/11 (Sheridan, 2006). However, many in the Muslim population tried to extend a helping hand to the West by assisting in the fight against terrorism (Mantri, 2011). By examining how a marginalized and oppressed people set aside racial tensions and dedicated themselves to the aims of the nation that accepted them, a new perspective on race and a greater appreciation of how racism can be transcended may be achieved. To understand the issue of race globally today, however, it is first important to examine how researchers have understood it thus far.

Globalization, Identity, and Attitudes Toward Immigration

The context of globalization is important to understand because it has changed the nature of how identity is constructed. Globalization is defined by Robertson (2015) as "the process whereby polities, economies, institutions and actors at all levels of society become increasingly connected across national borders" (p. 4). As more and more people become connected across borders, the very idea of maintaining strict borders has come to seem foolish and old-fashioned to some — particularly to young people. Today, many young people embrace the idea of open borders (Burridge, 2010). They interact with people of different cultures every day, whether in person or through social media, leaving comments on posts on Facebook, YouTube, or Twitter. These methods of communication have made it possible to form friendships with people the world over. There are so many ways for people to appreciate one another and share information — all made possible by communication technology — that the world does seem like one large community to many people (Burridge, 2010). For this reason, the idea of halting immigration seems offensive to them: they view immigrants not as threats but as potential new friends.

Others, however, hold a very different view of immigration. They see the world as full of dangerous individuals who cannot be trusted — especially people of a different race or ethnicity than the Caucasian Westerner. The attacks of September 11, 2001, profoundly impacted many in the West in terms of how they viewed race. Suddenly, Westerners felt vulnerable in a way they had not in a long time, and many mainstream media outlets gave them a group of people upon whom they could project their fears and newly intensified hostility — the Muslim population.

Post-9/11 Islamophobia and Anti-Muslim Violence

Abdelkarim (2002) shows that following 9/11 there was a tremendous wave of violence by Westerners against people believed to be Islamic: "there were well over 1,000 reported hate incidents and hate crimes, including murders, arson, vandalism, physical and verbal assaults, and telephoned threats" (p. 83). Some of these assaults ended in loss of life: "a Muslim man of Pakistani origin was shot dead in Texas, while an Indian Sikh gas station attendant who may have been mistaken for a Muslim was gunned down in Mesa, Arizona" (Abdelkarim, 2002, p. 83). The fact that one of the victims was an Indian Sikh reveals the irrationality and ignorance behind these attacks. Racism brings out the worst in people.

Islamophobia is just one example of how race has become a flashpoint in the West, yet it is a particularly important one because it has affected so many countries following the wars in the Middle East that triggered waves of migration. Millions of immigrants sought refuge in Europe, and several European nations have since struggled with the political repercussions. In Germany, Hungary, England, and Italy, political opponents of the EU's open-borders policy have emerged. They perceive the two cultures as fundamentally different and fear that their own Western culture will be lost amid large-scale Islamic immigration. Sheridan (2006) specifically documents how Islamophobia intensified both before and after September 11, demonstrating that prejudice was already present before the attacks and escalated sharply afterward.

Conclusion: Complexity of Race and Immigration

This literature review has illuminated much about the problem of race in a world that globalization has fundamentally transformed. Globalization has led many people to be open to welcoming foreigners into their countries, seeing the world as one large neighborhood. Advances in technology and the spread of information have made this possible. People are now able to encounter individuals from other cultures and races, hear their stories, and form friendships. They embrace the idea of open borders as a worthy goal (Burridge, 2010).

Others do not share this enthusiasm. They view immigrants as suspicious figures of uncertain background: not only are they of a race associated in the popular imagination with crime, terror, and violence, but they come from a culture that is not Western and therefore holds different values (Inglehart & Norris, 2003). This provides a motive for people to regard immigrants of different races — whether Latino, Asian, or Middle Eastern — with fear. They see globalization as a threat to their way of life, their culture, and their values. To them, globalization is not a positive development because it means more people moving across borders, undermining the culture and civilization built up over centuries in their native lands. The people of Germany, like those of England, Italy, Russia, China, and the United States, share a common instinct about nationhood, culture, and identity. They want their people to pass their culture on to the next generation and resist disruption by outsiders.

And yet many of these nations were themselves built by immigrants in earlier eras. The reality of the situation is therefore deeply complex and cannot be easily resolved. Nonetheless, some populations that have experienced marginalization and oppression still choose to turn the other cheek and offer their assistance to the people in their host countries (Abdelkarim, 2002). They seek unity with those around them rather than to be seen as a threat.