Religious Literacy and Security in Africa: Faiths and Conflict

Introduction

Religion is important to people because it not only gives them an individual identity but also a group identity. It fosters a sense of personal belief as well as a sense of community and belonging. Religions are diverse around the world. The main religions include Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Hinduism. Buddhism is not so much a religion as a philosophy or way of life. Even among the main religious traditions, however, there are different sects, belief systems, and ways of living. Pagan religions still exist in some parts of the world, and in other parts atheism is a growing trend. Because all of these belief systems can clash and people can come into conflict over them, religion is sometimes blamed as the cause of all wars. The reality, however, is that people who hold strong beliefs tend to act according to the degree to which they have virtue. Gandhi, for instance, did not hold to any one religion but viewed them all as partly true; yet when he advocated for a Muslim ruler in India over a Hindu ruler, Hindu political extremists sought his murder. This shows that when religion mixes with politics, it can lead to violence.

Religious literacy is therefore critical for contemporary security architects in Africa, because the more that religion is understood, the more secure African society can become.

History of Religion in the World and in Africa

Religion usually stems from some sense of the divine reaching out and communicating with humanity. The Jews believe that God spoke to them through Abraham and Moses. Muslims believe that God spoke to them through Muhammad. Christians believe that God spoke to them through Christ, the Apostles, and the saints. Hindus believe that the gods spoke to them through the Brahmans of their caste system. Ancient religions were essentially organized around similar premises.

The Jewish religion led to the Christian religion, and as the West became Christian after converting from various pagan traditions, it began to date its history from the birth of Christ. This same practice of dating history from the birth of an important figure is found in Islam, with Muhammad marking the beginning of the Islamic calendar. However, Jews, Christians, and Muslims have come into conflict with one another over the centuries. Jews persecuted the early Christians. Christians and Muslims fought during the Crusades. Christians even fought one another in Europe after the Protestant Reformation divided the continent between Catholics and Protestants. At the time of the Reformation, Muslims were invading from without and Jews were ascending within European society — these conflicts were real and persistent. Yet these conflicts can be understood in ways that allow people to appreciate their complexity. In Africa, this is certainly the case, as Africa itself has Muslims and Christians as its main religious groups. Understanding them can help leaders to organize more effectively and promote movement toward common aims.

As Harvard Divinity School (2022) points out, "religious literacy entails the ability to discern and analyze the fundamental intersections of religion and social/political/cultural life through multiple lenses." Some countries in Africa are beginning to take religious literacy seriously as they attempt to address security issues. For instance, South Africa has changed its policy on religion in recent years. As Driesen and Tayob (2016) note, "The South African National Policy on Religion and Education (2003) is designed to expose learners to the diversity of religious traditions that constitute the nation. The new policy replaces the mono-religious system of education promoted during apartheid" (p. 71). In South Africa, religious literacy is now being regarded as a civic duty and as an essential part of citizenship education. For security architects, it means providing guidance, training, and identity management in policies and procedures that will unite states in which diverse populations and beliefs coexist.

Various Religions and Practices in Africa

Africa as a whole has many diverse religions and traditions, and the distinction between North and South Africa is especially pronounced. The north is primarily Islamic, while the south is primarily Christian (MPPR, 2022). Scattered throughout regions in the east and west of Africa are traditional African religions that still remain active. The three main native African religions are the Yoruba religion, the Zulu religion, and the Igbo religion. Yoruba is found mainly in southwestern Nigeria, Zulu in southern Africa, and Igbo in southeastern Nigeria. Security architects should be mindful of this diversity and promote inclusion criteria for security objectives. Understanding the different religions is vital to achieving that goal.

The Yoruba religion holds that all natural beings have energy, or Ashe, and that "all people follow destiny (which is called Ayanmo) and will eventually meet their divine creator, the source of all energy" (MPPR, 2022). Yoruba is found mostly in Nigeria, Benin, and Togo. The Zulu religion, found in South Africa and neighboring states, involves ancestor worship and belief in witches, sorcerers, and God. Because Christianity has spread throughout southern Africa, there has been some mixing of Zulu belief and Christianity, creating a kind of hybrid religion. The Igbo have similarly adopted some Christian ideas, but traditionally believe in numerous gods, including an earth goddess named Ala (MPPR, 2022).

Christianity is the predominant religion of Africa — primarily in the south — with approximately 600 million adherents. It spread to Africa from the north around the 2nd century AD, probably "brought from Jerusalem to Alexandria on the Egyptian coast by Mark, one of the four gospel writers, in 60 AD" (MPPR, 2022). Although Christianity spread broadly across Africa, when Islam conquered North Africa, the north tended to remain Islamic. Today, approximately 440 million Africans are Muslim (MPPR, 2022).

As Barnard (2015) states, "religion is a glue that can bind and unify a nation or a group of people, or it can lead to the destruction of nations as well as lead to intra-state conflicts" (p. 2). However, it is not easy to characterize conflicts as purely religious in nature, because identity, group membership, traditions, culture, economics, social and political factors, and other elements can all figure into a conflict. Religion can be one aspect of a conflict without necessarily describing its totality. Nonetheless, understanding religion is helpful in understanding conflict, which is why religious literacy is valuable for security in Africa.

Chitando and Tarusarira (2019) argue that "there is a need for religious literacy that not only interprets the hidden grammar of religious beliefs and practices but also tries to understand how religion interfaces with other aspects of life in Africa." By raising religious literacy, people in Africa can be better positioned "to establish linkages between religion and various pressing and contested issues of our modern times — violence, poverty eradication, ecology, human development, and politics" (Chitando & Tarusarira, 2019). Moreover, this development is especially urgent in Africa because "religion has a seamless connection to every aspect of daily life" on the continent (Chitando & Tarusarira, 2019).

How Religion Affects Security

Religion affects security because it shapes the culture of a region and the customs and expectations of its people. Security architects are responsible for managing issues such as border control, technology, and identity validation. When people of different and conflicting religious beliefs cross borders, there is a risk of conflict. When populations are radicalized by extremist religious beliefs — as has occurred in parts of Africa where radical Islamist ideas have taken root — insurrection becomes a serious possibility, as demonstrated by Boko Haram. Boko Haram is considered a major security threat in Nigeria, and Forbes (2018) has noted that "military efforts to prevent further Boko Haram attacks in the coming months are hugely challenged by the sheer size of the territory in which the group operates and its continued ability to launch attacks." The group maintains terror links rooted in radical Islamist beliefs. The religious aspect is not necessarily the sole driver of the group, but it fuels a culture that attracts recruits across Africa. This means security architects must maintain vigilance regarding the religious ideas that circulate within and around such groups. They must understand how religion impacts society, politics, and the military in order to respond effectively.

Tinubu (2017) has noted that "today, much of the world's military challenges have little to do with the confrontation of standing army against standing army. You now must adapt your concepts and your very institution to Fourth Generation or Non-trinitarian Warfare. Here, you deal with the intersection of ideology, politics and highly weaponized non-state actors whose membership, tactics and aims are fluid and inconstant." In other words, security concerns in Africa are not necessarily about state-to-state conflicts but rather about belief systems and how they generate the possibility for domestic terrorism within the state.

This dynamic is evident in countries such as Somalia, where Al-Shabab — a militant extremist group with associations to ISIS and Al-Qaeda (Center for International Security and Cooperation, 2019) — has reshaped the functioning of the state. Al-Shabab seeks to control the Somali government and expel all foreign supporting powers. It has allied with Al-Qaeda to oppose the existing Islamic government in Somalia, arguing that it does not represent Islam adequately. The group demands Sharia law universally, and for this reason has also conducted terror attacks in Kenya. It has no interest in peace unless that peace is on its own terms and will not tolerate other religious groups or ideas. This is an example of a religious movement that refuses coexistence, and it presents a direct challenge for security architects across the region.

Conclusion

Religion has always been an important part of society throughout history. Yet religions have always come into conflict, too. The Jews were enslaved by the Egyptians. The early Christians were persecuted by the Jews. Muslims and Catholics fought for centuries. Protestants and Catholics warred with one another across parts of the world. Hindus, Christians, and Muslims have battled in India. In Africa today, there are ongoing struggles between extremist groups like Boko Haram and governments, and there are tensions between Christians and Muslims that need to be better addressed. These tensions can begin to be resolved through the promotion of religious literacy, which can foster understanding and appreciation rather than allowing resentment and hatred to push people toward violence. The climate of fear and anxiety in states like Somalia or parts of Nigeria is distressing, because with greater religious literacy people would be more accepting and tolerant of one another. Yet solutions must also give sustained attention to economic, social, and political factors if they are to produce lasting change.

References

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