ROTC Leadership and African American College Student Development

Introduction and Problem Statement

There is an acknowledged identity crisis present in the African American community, evidenced by high rates of incarceration and low educational achievement. The college environment serves to influence the development required in the self-identity transition toward self-actualization, fostering a view of identity characterized by achievement. A delay in achievement is associated with the failure to accept self or group identity. This work illustrates that attitude is linked to developmental task achievement and behavioral adjustment, both of which are prerequisites for making the commitment to educational attainment. Principles of military discipline and leadership are also reviewed in relation to College ROTC programs, which assist in the development of character among students in ways that may be applied in corporate management following college.

There is a lack of research addressing how College ROTC leadership development influences the behavior and attitude development tasks of African American students. The education gap, high levels of incarceration, and income disparities between African Americans and other groups may be a result of shortfalls in behavior and attitude development.

Research shows that the dominant culture in the United States expects specific behaviors and attitudes from individuals according to their age group and level of education. Successful achievement of a developmental task allows the individual to acquire the experience needed to accomplish subsequent developmental tasks encountered throughout life. Some college administrators use the following developmental tasks as part of the Student Developmental Task and Lifestyle Assessment (SDTLA) (Winston, Miller, & Cooper, 1999) to assess where students are in their development process:

(1) Establishing and Clarifying Purpose Task, defined by four subtasks: Educational Involvement, Career Planning, Lifestyle Planning, and Cultural Participation; (2) Developing Autonomy Task, defined by four subtasks: Emotional Autonomy, Interdependence, Academic Autonomy, and Instrumental Autonomy; and (3) Mature Interpersonal Relationships Task, defined by two subtasks: Peer Relationships and Tolerance.

All too often, young African American college students who lack commitment and motivation are left behind in education, career development, and lifestyle planning due to insufficient leadership development during the college years. The majority of research concludes that African American college students are considered to be in the moratorium phase, exhibiting identity exploration without commitment. Research shows that African American students growing up in the United States may be at risk of failing to achieve basic identity development because of their lack of commitment (Marcia, 1966, 1980; Branch, 2002). A review of models such as Marcia's expansion of Erikson's identity model and Chickering's vector theory is provided. W.E.B. DuBois's concept of "double identity" and Erikson's writings concerning "adaptive coping" in minorities are presented, along with an overview of Afrocentrism, cross-cultural viewpoints, acculturation, and culture-specific viewpoints (Burt & Halpin, 1998). An overview of College Army ROTC Leadership Development techniques is also provided.

The purpose of this study is to add to the body of knowledge available to professors and college students by exploring the influence of ROTC leadership development on the planning skills of African American students. Specifically, this study aims to determine whether the developmental task achievement status of African American students enrolled in College Army ROTC Leadership Development Programs differs from that of African American students not enrolled. This study is significant because it provides insight into some of the underlying variables that may be responsible for the lack of commitment in multiple developmental task areas.

Identity Development Theory and African American Students

The work of Burt and Halpin (1998), entitled "African American Identity Development: A Review of the Literature," states: "The concept of identity and identity development was initially presented by Sigmund Freud, who referred to identity or 'inner identity' as an individual's link with the unique values, fostered by a unique history of his people" (Erikson, 1959, p. 102; as cited in Burt & Halpin, 1987). Freud was the first to introduce the social and historical dynamics of personal development, holding that identity is the integration of the individual within the group as well as how he or she interacts with other groups. Building upon Freud's theory of ego development and Hartmann's adaptation theory, psychosocial theorist Erik H. Erikson further examined the concept of ego identity development (Erikson, 1959, as cited in Burt & Halpin, 1987).

The work of Marcia (1966, 1980) built upon Erikson's stage identity approach. While Marcia viewed identity as "an existential position and an inner organization of needs, abilities, and self-perceptions as well as a socio-political stance" (Marcia, 1980), he did not see identity as something that was achieved or attained, but rather as a dynamic and ongoing process driven by a series of crises in an individual's life, in which physical development, cognitive growth, and social expectations coincide to enable a young person to sort through and synthesize their childhood identifications in order to construct a viable pathway toward adulthood (Halpin & Burt, 1998). Marcia states that "ego and identity diffusion refer to polar outcomes of the hypothesized psychosocial crisis occurring in late adolescence" (1966).

Halpin and Burt state that Marcia holds that "crises are not defined as tragedies or misfortunes, but are rather the decisions and commitments that adolescents make during this significant period of human development. Whether or not an adolescent leaves the industry stage with a healthy confidence in his or her abilities and specific vocational skills will carry the individual into the next stage of his or her life" (Marcia, 1980, as cited in Halpin & Burt, 1998). Marcia proposes four identity statuses within which adolescents commit to vocational, spiritual, sexual, moral, and other social dilemmas. The identity diffusion status is characterized by individuals demonstrating a lack of commitment ability or a lack of desire to make decisions, opting instead to let life happen as it comes. The foreclosed status is similar to the identity-diffused status in that foreclosed adolescents do not make commitments and tend to shy away from dealing with crises. In the moratorium status, individuals actively allow significant others to control their experiences or decisions (Halpin & Burt, 1998).

The work of DuBois (1903), entitled The Souls of Black Folk, provides a description of the African American experience as one of being hindered in natural movement, expression, and development. DuBois introduced the concept of "dual consciousness" or double identity, equating the African American identity with a split or counterpart identity (Halpin & Burt, 1998). DuBois writes:

"The history of the American Negro is the history of this strife — this longing to attain self-conscious manhood, to merge his double self into a better and truer self. In this merging he wishes neither of the older selves to be lost. He would not Africanize America, for America has too much to teach the world and Africa. He would not bleach his Negro soul in a flood of White Americanism, for he knows that Negro blood has a message for the world. He simply wishes to make it possible for a man to be both a Negro and an American, without being cursed and spit upon by his fellows, without having the doors of Opportunity closed roughly in his face." (DuBois, 1903)

The work of Alessandria and Nelson (2005) states that Erikson held that identity development begins early in life, though uncertainty exists about when it ends. Identity development is a lifelong process, generally solidified during adolescence and young adulthood but continually refined as life progresses. Erikson states that "positive resolution of the identity and repudiation versus identity diffusion crisis is classified as 'a sense of psychosocial well-being. Its most obvious concomitants are a feeling of being at home in one's body, a sense of knowing where one is going, and an inner assuredness of anticipated recognition from those who count'" (Erikson, 1968, p. 165, as cited in Alessandria & Nelson, 2005).

Chickering's identity development model, based upon Erikson's identity formation stage, proposes seven vectors, each of which can be viewed as a sequence of developmental tasks, a source of anxiety, and a collection of end results (Alessandria & Nelson, 2005). These seven vectors are: (1) developing competence; (2) managing emotions; (3) developing autonomy; (4) establishing identity; (5) freeing interpersonal relationships; (6) developing purpose; and (7) developing integrity. Each vector represents a component of the larger category of identity development, while six of the vectors (other than establishing identity) also function to make the concept of identity more integrated (Alessandria & Nelson, 2005). Central to Chickering's model is the idea that "individuals will be at different developmental points, since the vectors are not age-specific but based on individual life experiences. This is a reminder that students are unique and cannot be addressed as a homogeneous population" (Alessandria & Nelson, 2005).

Phinney (1990, 1992, as cited in Alessandria & Nelson, 2005) relates that ethnic identity is a multifaceted construct characterized by a positive attitude toward one's own ethnic belonging as well as a strong sense of group membership. Phinney's model consists of three ethnic identity statuses: (1) diffusion; (2) moratorium; and (3) achieved. The development of an individual is based upon the degree of exploration and commitment pursued (Alessandria & Nelson, 2005). Phinney, Chavira, and Williamson (1992) identify four methods through which individuals may participate in society: (1) assimilation, in which the individual abandons all connections to ethnicity in order to identify with the dominant culture; (2) integration, in which identification with both the ethnic and dominant culture is strong; (3) separation, characterized by minimal interaction with the dominant culture and an intense focus on the ethnic group and its traditions and values; and (4) marginality, characterized by forfeiture of the individual's native culture and an absence of involvement with the dominant culture (Alessandria & Nelson, 2005).