Sigmund Freud: Personality Theory and Psychoanalysis

Introduction: Freud's Intellectual Formation

Sigmund Freud's period of study alongside French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot assisted him greatly in understanding the human mind. Charcot was at his professional peak when he met Freud and did not hesitate to share much of his personal work, including his research on hypnosis. Through studying hypnosis, Freud discovered that it is possible for people's behavior to be influenced by the hypnotist's words. Charcot also introduced Freud to the study of hysteria — a condition that had generally been considered characteristic of women — and its ability to affect any individual regardless of gender.

Although the time he spent with Charcot influenced him greatly, Freud was determined to learn more about the unconscious and went on to examine it with the help of one of Charcot's adversaries, Hippolyte Bernheim. Bernheim extended the use of hypnosis further by having people perform various tasks after being hypnotized. He could also influence people into remembering episodes of their lives that they had previously been unable to recall.

Freud was drawn into the world of psychoanalysis largely through his relationship with Dr. Joseph Breuer, who influenced Freud in developing a personality theory. Breuer's techniques were essential in fueling Freud's interest in the field. Breuer's experience with the controversial patient known as Anna O. had a strong effect on Freud, and together the two men became actively engaged in determining the cause of the woman's intriguing condition. Through employing hypnosis to investigate Anna's medical condition, Freud and Breuer discovered that the apparently inexplicable cause of her hysteria was related to the traumas she experienced while nursing her ill father. Their collaboration resulted in the 1895 manuscript Studies on Hysteria, which took the world by surprise by introducing the concept that people's behavior is dictated by a series of unconscious processes. Although it did not receive positive reviews in its early years, the book later came to be recognized as one of the most important documents in the field.

The Austrian psychoanalyst worked with a number of other individuals engaged in studying human behavior and its influences, and came to be one of the field's most prominent representatives. Studies on Hysteria is generally credited with starting the psychoanalytical movement. His second book, The Interpretation of Dreams, was issued as a result of his efforts to perform self-analysis and received a similarly lukewarm reception initially. Nevertheless, it was most probably this book that led Freud and the concept of psychoanalysis to gain wider appreciation in the world of psychology. After conducting studies on various patients, on his family, and even on himself, Freud reached the conclusion that human personality is generally shaped by organic instincts, with the unconscious being primarily responsible for motivating people's actions.

Key Concepts: The Unconscious and Psychosexual Development

Following his rise to international recognition as a result of his books and theories, Freud became widely known in the therapeutic world. Numerous individuals in neighboring communities expressed interest in psychoanalysis, and Freud and some of his trainees were invited to give lectures at Clark University in 1909, further advancing his theories in society. Although his experience in the United States was not particularly enjoyable, he acknowledged this moment as being very important to the progress of the psychoanalysis community. The eccentricity of Freud's theories made it difficult for followers to contradict them in the first few years following his rise to fame. However, as the psychoanalysis community grew, a great many individuals joined it and eventually expressed their own perspectives. Freud's powerful character was essential at this stage, as he managed to slow down most psychoanalysts who wished to contradict his viewpoints. It was not until his death that other psychoanalysts gained recognition for criticizing and even modifying his theories (Millon 122).

Freud wanted people to understand that the conscious and preconscious parts of the mind were much smaller than the unconscious. He devised three terms for these elements: he associated the conscious with the ego, the preconscious with the superego, and the unconscious with the id. From his perspective, the ego and superego deal with memories that are easily accessible, feelings, and perceptions, while the unconscious holds material that is not available to the individual. The unconscious is responsible for harboring desires, instincts, and memories that people do not wish to remember due to associated traumas. While people generally believe that the conscious and preconscious are the reasons why they act as they do, Freud insisted that this is not necessarily true — the unconscious is apparently capable of controlling behavior and serves as the general source of human motivation. The id was thus considered by Freud to be the most important factor in people's lives and the reason for most actions they cannot explain (Boeree).

Freud believed that people pass through several stages as they develop from a psychosexual point of view, and that the ego has the mission of suppressing the id throughout these stages.

The Oral Stage lasts from birth to eighteen months and is the phase in which the infant concentrates on the mouth as a result of its capacity to deliver pleasure. If caregivers are not effective in satisfying the individual's needs, it is likely that he or she will develop issues "with oral activities such as smoking, drinking, eating, or biting his or her nails or chewing pencils and pens" (Personalities — Theories).

The Anal Stage lasts from eighteen months until three years and involves the child experiencing pleasure as he or she directs attention to bowel movements and develops the ability to control them. Individuals who do not navigate this phase normally may develop "an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control (anal retentive) or they may become messy and disorganized (anal expulsive)" (Personalities — Theories).

The Phallic Stage lasts from approximately age three until age six. During this phase, children concentrate on their genitalia and begin to recognize differences between genders by observing their parents and identifying with one of them. Freud believed that the id influences boys to develop a sexual interest in their mothers and to view their fathers as rivals. He further believed that boys develop the fear that their fathers wish to punish them for this thinking, giving rise to the Oedipus Complex. Girls apparently experience a similar episode, referred to as the Electra Complex. Freud also believed that girls are likely to develop an additional psychological concern at this stage — a condition he called "penis envy," stemming from the absence of male sexual organs. These difficulties are later resolved as each child identifies with the same-sex parent and begins to think in ways consistent with his or her own gender.

The Latency Stage lasts from age six until the onset of puberty. Most children contain their sexual desires during this period and typically socialize with children who share their gender identity. Sexual drive is reactivated from puberty onward. If people successfully navigate the challenges of these stages, they develop into healthy adolescents capable of directing their sexual drive toward partners of the opposite sex, with the genitalia as the primary focus of attention (Personalities — Theories).