Integrated Urban Port and Harbor Planning: Environmental Guide

Introduction to Port and Harbor Planning

Port planning is a multifaceted undertaking that involves technical, operational, economic, social, and environmental dimensions. Projects may range from terminal rehabilitation to converting an entire area into a communal park, each involving distinct economic, social, cultural, ethical, and environmental goals.

Every area has unique resources that must be incorporated into the overall planning process in accordance with local legal regulations. Given differences in geographical characteristics, it is necessary to find a particular approach suited to both the short- and long-term goals of the port, as well as to every detailed construction element or facility provided. The port and harbor must address how to convert an urban area into a beneficial site while maintaining the original characteristics of the landscape—including, and without overlooking, the objectives of the resident population for the future. It must also defend the sustainability of the area in order to support harbor progress in subsequent decades.

Before proceeding to the planning itself, setting appropriate goals is essential. It is necessary to state clearly and in detail how to make the most of existing features, and then to decide what approaches will be taken.

Land Use and Goal Setting

The decision-making process for an urban-oriented area should consider the following perspectives. According to Nicholas (1982), land use in urban centers is usually compact. Cities have settled into a decentralization trend in which accessibility is in high demand, carrying multiple functions—mostly trading, manufacturing, state naval activities, tourism, and other growing industries related to rapid community sprawl. Social uses follow, including recreational and civic functions.

The Land Use Coding Manual has classified land use based on people-oriented activities. A port or harbor should meet this expectation: land use should be maximized around a concentrated manufacturing center that generates sufficient income not only for the harbor itself but also for local residents. In more detailed plans, ports and harbors are typically planned to provide good housing and convenient public access for cargo, shipping, fishing, docking businesses, and related industries. All decisions must support these goals—such as infrastructure development, providing effective traffic management in the area, closing underperforming facilities, and deciding which areas will serve as centers for public, recreational, or manufacturing activities.

As an example, the Port of San Francisco has a global strategic plan to serve as a center of public activities, fulfilling "a balance of maritime, recreational, industrial, transportation, public access, and commercial activities." One of its strategies is building industrial and transportation facilities on-site, which is divided into functional goals such as increasing cargo-shipping volume and supporting commercial ferry activities. In the process, the port plans to work with existing shipping line customers and pursue local trade through aggressive marketing projects. For physical support, the port plans to build infrastructure "to make cargo terminals more efficient."

The existing characteristics of a site are powerful sources that any plan should reference. Leverburgh, UK, for instance, is a flat area of approximately 17 hectares, partly undeveloped. Facilities there are limited to a fishing pier and a ferry terminal. Public amenities include a waiting room for ferry passengers, fishing equipment, and tank storage on undeveloped open land; other buildings serve no significant function. Land ownership is divided between the Council and the Island Enterprise, which has developed industrial units on part of the property.

The Council sees many opportunities to develop the area. The main aspects to consider in the proposal include:

1. Road Access: Construction of a new road is urgently needed to provide an additional access option to the ferry port, since the existing access is inadequate and hazardous for heavy traffic.

2. Fishing Industry Facilities: Leverburgh already possesses basic fishing equipment, although it is limited and stored improperly, making it vulnerable to theft or damage. The improper storage system also causes damage to the environment and the aesthetic appearance of the port itself. The Council proposes building new parking and storage facilities accessible to vehicles, ensuring products are transported conveniently and punctually. The storage area would be equipped with a fuel station, adequate lighting, and security stations. The proposal also specifies that the system must not produce devastating pollution effects—sewage, noise, or light pollution—on the surrounding area.

Infrastructure, Fishing Facilities, and Coast Guard Services

Facilities improvements at Leverburgh also include a breakwater construction necessary to increase vessel safety and enable port enlargement. The pier will be extended, and landing facilities and slipways will be improved. With fishing facilities as a priority, similar conditions apply in the United States.

The Port of San Francisco also plans to develop facilities for the commercial fishing industry, including fish-handling facilities certified as "safe, efficient, and environmentally sound." To continue market diversification, it has proposed facilities to serve harbor service customers and the ship repair industry.

As port managements work to market their services and integrate ports into commerce, they must also provide assurances to visitors and business partners that operations are secure and suitable for long-term business relationships. The U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) provides required equipment at strategic harbor sites and functions as an information center on how to address problems that may arise. The type of facilities provided depends on how the port is classified.

As a commercial port, the USCG allows commercial ships to operate with standard equipment and provides a wide range of information on commercial vessel safety, port safety and security, and marine safety. According to the Coast Guard, commercial fishing is one of the most hazardous industries in the United States. Therefore, it has made information available through the Coast Guard's Commercial Fishing Vessel Safety (CFVS) program.

Environmental Impact and Pollution Management

There is, however, a significant environmental impact and social and environmental responsibility that a port bears as its location converts into an industrial area. Industry will be the primary source of pollutants.

A clear example of industrial hazardous products is heavy metals. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), many functions in sailing, shipping, and maintenance activities involve metals throughout the process. Common hazardous metals found around harbors include:

Lead, used as a fuel additive, found in ballast water, and resulting from incomplete combustion; Arsenic, used as a paint compound, pesticide, and preservative; Zinc, used as an anti-corrosion agent in metal maintenance; and Copper and tin, used as biocides in antifoulant paint.

When dissolved in water, metals become difficult to manage and are easily distributed throughout the water column. Metals also deposit in silt and clay sediments as currents disperse them throughout the water body, where they become toxic to aquatic organisms.

Severe metal pollution threatens the continuation of water quality and long-term sustainability. Even when it does not reach fatal toxicity thresholds, metal accumulates in sediments and organisms, producing complex biological and ecological effects. Filter-feeding organisms such as mussels and crabs may accumulate metals in their tissue, making them dangerous to harvest. When water conditions deteriorate sufficiently, local fish and other seafood product quality may be compromised, posing risks to public health.

This is why environmental management must be rigorous from the very beginning of the planning process. The EPA requires periodic water assessments to provide up-to-date data on the contamination status of water areas. The EPA also classifies vessels into international standard categories to measure their potential as contamination sources. Vessels operating primarily in boat rental, boat slips, boat storage, cleaning, and repair fall under the storm water program and must obtain a water discharge permit under SIC 4493. The storm water discharge permit is also required when a port is used for ship or boat rehabilitation, repairs, painting, or fueling—all activities involving pollutant materials. Operators must always maintain contact with the local EPA agency.

Whatever the size of the harbor and the scope of activities, ports need facilities to manage pollutants. The Port of San Francisco, for example, has documented several strategic plans to become more environmentally friendly. Hyde Street Harbor has been equipped with several new features to minimize environmental hazard, including bilge pump-out and sewage holding tank pump-out systems at new berths and at a new fuel dock. By using these facilities free of charge, boats can minimize the discharge of bilge water into the harbor, directing it instead to the city's sanitary sewer system.

The harbor also plans to install a new used-oil recycling station. Used oil will be pumped "from vessel engines through double-walled piping to a double-walled tank on shore" to prevent spills and leakage. In addition, both "hard boom" and "soft boom" systems have been installed to contain and absorb spilled oil.

Conclusion: Balancing Development and Environmental Responsibility

Harbors serve many functions for local and regional communities, depending on geographical location and the development potential each site holds. It is necessary to carry out a series of careful on-site studies to examine what potential exists, how far it can be developed, and what the sustainable carrying capacity of the area is—including foreseeable hazards to surrounding waters and the environment.

Multiple goals must emerge from the different perspectives of all stakeholders in the area, but all should first be inventoried individually to examine the resources the community already possesses, in order to develop a functioning setting. When all resources seem to be accounted for, it is important to view them together from the big picture.

The entire landscape is affected by climate change in the harbor context. Mostly neglected areas in land use may hold strong potential to contribute to the overall success of a port. According to the EPA, siting and design are critical in determining how much impact harbor activities have on water quality. Circulation and flushing of water and contaminants are affected by stream circulation and wind direction. The location of the marina will determine how pollutants are transported, as pollutants travel differently depending on the nature of the current. Open waters (rivers, bays, barrier environments), semi-enclosed waters, and protected bays each have different characteristics with respect to sediment, flushing, and current strength. Open areas receive many influences from rivers and dynamic flux from surrounding waters; streams are more dynamic and faster due to prevailing winds, allowing more rapid dilution. Differences in salinity and pH determine how severely and how quickly pollutants manifest harmful effects on the environment.

The final design of a marina will therefore combine serial assessments and field studies, accounting for every relevant aspect: biological, physical, and chemical. Marina siting and correct design management measures will determine how a marina influences water and organisms. The design should not cause damaging water quality impacts during or after construction. When building commences, it will disturb the seashore and destroy marine organism habitats that can be difficult to recover.

Construction can have both negative and positive effects on organisms. The destruction of habitats—such as those of sediment-burrowing organisms—may cause ecosystem imbalance that results in the overabundance of other organisms whose habitat is recreated by the construction. Fouling organisms, for example, can be both beneficial (attracting fish) and destructive (settling on ship hulls and construction surfaces). The water circulation determines all processes that will occur in the area, so it is necessary to find a good balance between the services offered and the carrying capacity of the location, ensuring that whatever development is undertaken brings minimal impact to the environment.

Bibliography

Leverburgh Waterfront Planning Brief. 2001. European and Development Services. http://www.w-isles.gov.uk/lever00.htm. (Apr. 1, 2002).

Management Measures for Marina and Recreational Boating. 1997. Guidance Specifying Management Measures for Sources of Nonpoint Pollution in Coastal Waters. EPA-840-B-93-001c, January 1993. (Apr. 1, 2002).

Nicholas, Francis W. In Christian, Charles M. and Harper, Robert A. 1982. Managing the Urban Physical Environment. Modern Metropolitan Systems. Charles E. Merrill Publishing. Pp. 332–359.

Port of San Francisco Strategic Plan. (Apr. 1, 2002).

The Port of Houston Free Trading Zone. http://www.portofhouston.com/overview/ftz.htm. (Apr. 1, 2002).

USCG Life Saving and Fire Safety. http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g-m/mse4/mse4home.htm. (Apr. 1, 2002).

USCG General Marine Safety Documents. http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g-m/nmc/gendoc/gendocs.htm. (Apr. 1, 2002).