Women Writers of the Middle Ages and Virginia Woolf

Women and Literary Production in the Middle Ages

The majority of literature familiar to readers from the Middle Ages and Renaissance was written by men, since women were not encouraged to read or write and were not considered equal to their male counterparts. Out of this sparse literary record, some examples survive because of women's affiliation with the Church or the court. These include Julian of Norwich, a solitary visionary, and Margery Kempe, who was motivated by voices within her mind.

Author Virginia Woolf, in "A Room of One's Own," argues that such so-called "Shakespeare's sisters" could not have lived as geniuses: "Any woman born with a great gift in the 16th century would certainly have gone crazed, shot herself, or ended her days in some lonely cottage outside the village, half witch, half wizard, feared and mocked by all."

It is not surprising that one of the women who wrote during this time, Julian of Norwich, was a recluse. Those women who retreated to a nunnery had somewhat more freedom to be creative. At the age of 30, in 1372 A.D., Julian suffered a near-fatal illness and felt extreme pity for Christ's sufferings (Norton 14). Afterward, she wrote her book about her revelations — visions of Christ she called "showings." She was commemorated as a saint by the Church of England in 1980.

Julian of Norwich: Visions, Theology, and Gender

In her writings, Julian piously describes God as one who is ultimately pleased with the creation of the world and thankful for those living in happiness in heaven, while the devil is eternally frustrated. Although Julian lived in a historical period filled with despair, she maintained that her era was not a time of punishment but of purification from sin. She speaks of the saints rejoicing in the heavenly kingdom, and the King himself open to being approached upon his throne. On earth, she taught, one must turn to the Church as a continuation of Jesus' ministry.

Julian's beliefs about women during the Middle Ages are complex. In her study of medieval gender constructions, Fragmentation and Redemption: Essays on Gender and the Human Body in Medieval Religion, Bynum concludes that medieval theory acknowledged the "permeability or interchangeability of the sexes," although "the male body is paradigmatic," and even Julian of Norwich — for whom Christ was Mother — still consistently referred to him with the male pronoun (220–22).

On the other hand, Robertson suggests that the physicality of Julian's language presents the redemptive possibilities for femininity and emphasizes the sensuality of Christ. Thus it is the "feminized body of Christ" that "redeems the sensual" (156). Robertson further argues that Julian was a subtle strategist who sought to undo assumptions about women and to provide a different concept of femininity through contemplation of Christ's "feminine" attributes.

Margery Kempe: Spiritual Autobiography and Rebellion

Margery Kempe was also born in the fourteenth century, but instead of spiritual meditations she produced preachings that "reflect a tumultuous moment in church history" (Norton 2). Margery was illiterate and therefore depended on others to transcribe her story, which can be read as anything from a spiritual journey to an act of rebellion against the constraints of her time — she even convinced her husband that celibacy would most please God. During one of her mental breakdowns, Margery reported being visited by Jesus, who said, "My daughter, why have you left me, when I never for one moment went away from you?"

Unlike the religious writings of Julian, Margery's narrative centered on everyday activities and events. She included accounts of her travels, her marriage, and her encounters with notable people, producing a work that blends devotional experience with lived, worldly detail.