17th Century Essays (Examples)

Christopher Hill's ideology and opinion of historical analysis in terms of religion and economics

According to the British Marxist historian Christopher Hill in 1961, the then-common historical interpretation of the revolutionary events of the 17th century was "that the English Revolution of 1640-60 was a great social movement like the French Revolution of 1789," at least in the eyes of most liberal historians, while conservative or Tory British historians tended to see the entire movement as misguided. (Hill, 1961, Introduction) Thus, more often than not, the transformation of the English Civil ar is seen as a fight between the forces of reaction and the forces of democratic pluralism, with the forces of reaction embodied in "the despotism" of the British King Charles I, who "was defended by the reactionary forces of the established Church and conservative landlords," after the king was set upon by the forces of Parliament and the…

Work Cited

Hill, Christopher. The Century of Revolution, 1603 -- 1714. First published 1940 and rewritten in 1961. Reprinted 1980 & 1982. London: Lawrence and Wishart. Transcribed by Anthony Blunden, 2002 at Marxists on the Web. Available on the web on 2005  http://www.marxists.org/archive/hill-christopher/english-revolution/

Exoticism in 19th & 20th Century Opera

Exoticism in 19th and 20th Century Opera

Exoticism was a cultural invention of the 17th Century, enjoying resurgence in the 19th and 20th Centuries due to increased travel and trade by Europeans in foreign, intriguing continents. The "est," eventually including the United States, adapted and recreated elements of those alluring cultures according to estern bias, creating escapist art forms that blended fantasy with reality. Two examples of Exoticism in Opera are Georges Bizet's "Carmen," portraying cultural bias toward gypsies and Basques, and Giacomo Puccini's "Madama Butterfly," portraying cultural bias toward the Far East. "Carmen" was developed from a single original source while "Madama Butterfly" was a fusion of several sources that developed successively; nevertheless, both operas remain distinguished examples of Exoticism in Opera.

Exoticism in History and Culture

Meaning "that which is introduced from or originating in a foreign (especially tropical) country or…

Works Cited

Boyd, A. (n.d.). Exoticism. Retrieved from The Imperial Archive Web site: http://www.qub.ac.uk/imperial/key-concepts/Exoticism.htm

New York City Opera Project. (n.d.). New York City Opera Project: Carmen | Madama Butterfly. Retrieved from Columbia University Web site:  http://www.columbia.edu/itc/music/NYCO 

The Metropolitan Opera. (2011). Carmen | Madama Butterfly. Retrieved from Metropolitan Opera Family Web site: http://www.metoperafamily.org

Education in America

The seventeenth century has been called, as an age of faith, and for the colonists a preoccupation with religion, as probably right. The religious rebel of the sixteenth century was severe and shaking as its impact was felt both on the continent as well as in America. However, intelligent Americans of the seventeenth century thought and realized that education could, and may be should, be a handmaiden to religion. Yet, humanism was there more than religion in the intellectual diet of the educated Americans 1.

The humanists preceded their work at a stable speed, which, affected education of northern, middle & southern colonies of America. However, many argued that without much attention given to education, and without even realizing that the books comprised illustrations of better life were taught into schools in order to affect the life and mind of students, how could the aspiration of humanism…

Bibliography

1. George R. Waggoner; Barbara Ashton Waggoner. Education in Central America

University Press of Kansas. Lawrence, KS. 1971

2 H.E. Butler. Institutes of Oratory. Cambridge: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard

University Press, 1921, 4 vols.

Witchcraft in the 16th & 17 Centuries: Response to Literature

At first glance, a logical 21st Century explanation for the "witch craze" (also known as a witch-hunt) during the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe was based largely upon human ignorance. That is to say, the belief that a sub-culture of the general population performed witchcraft (and other magic-related phenomena), and ate the flesh of children, helped the unenlightened explain the unexplainable, and helped the ignorant deal with the darkness. Witchcraft seemingly established a reason that a person had that bad luck and it explained illnesses, and probably it helped explain natural calamities such as tornadoes, seismic catastrophes and sudden killer bolts of lightning or sheets of rain turned into disastrous flooding. Or it could even explain a stillborn child and a puppy with a broken leg. Somebody put a spell on that poor dog. Mysterious events that had no…

Bibliography

Behringer, Wolfgang (1997) Witchcraft Persecutions in Bavaria: Popular magic, religious zealotry and reason of state in early modern Europe. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

Breslaw, G., Elaine (2000) Witches of the Atlantic World: A Historical Reader & Primary Sourcebook. New York, New York University Press.

Cohn, Norman (1975) Europe's Inner Demons: An Enquiry Inspired by the Great Witch-Hunt. New York, Basic Books.

Coudert, Allison P. (1989) The Myth of the Improved Status of Protestant Women: The Case of the Witchcraze. In: Brink, Jean, R., & Coudert, Allison P. ed. The Politics of gender in Early Modern Europe. Kirksville, MO, Sixteenth Century Journal Publishers.

Eighteenth Century was a time of profound change and upheaval in the western world. Alexander Pope, Samuel Pepys, Jonathan Swift were among the most prominent of 18th century writers, and each left his mark on literature. Importantly, the 1800s were characterized by the impact of social stratification on all aspects of life, including food, fashion, society, furnishings, and even literature.

Society and Culture

In 18th century Europe, the dominant powers were Russia, Prussia, France, Austria, and Britain. As such, any discussion of the 18th century usually focuses upon life in these leading nations. At the time, America was embroiled deeply in the development of a new nation, the shaking off of the shackles of slavery, and lessening English control in the American colonies. The United States Declaration of Independence was only signed late in the eighteenth century, in 1776 (ikipeda).

Lasting from 1701-1800, the 18th century is often synonymous with…

Works Cited

AllRefer. Interior decoration, Interior Design and Home Furnishings. AllRefer.com. 11 May 2004.  http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/I/interior.html 

Brainard, Rick. Daily Life: 18th Century Society: An Overview. 18th Century History. 11 May 2004. http://www.history1700s.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=105

Colonial Williamsburg. 18th Century Clothing. 11 May 2004.  http://www.history.org/history/clothing/intro/index.cfm 

Malaspina Great Books. Alexander Pope. 11 May 2004. http://www.malaspina.com/site/person_951.asp

Moll Flanders

The eighteenth century is often thought of a time of pure reason; after all, the eighteenth century saw the Enlightenment, a time when people believed fervently in rationality, objectivity and progress. However, Moll Flanders by Daniel Defoe also shows an era of chaos, depicted by a sort of wildness inside of people. Moll Flanders, the protagonist of Defoe's story, has been an orphan, a wife, mother, prostitute and a thief. Paula Backscheider (65) urges that Moll Flanders symbolizes the vicissitudes that were frequently experienced by many people in what was supposed to be an enlightened age. This is an obvious juxtaposition in Defoe's work. Defoe depicts a world that is not very compassionate, despite it being the Enlightenment period. Moll should have been better taken care of as an orphan, but she wasn't and this shows a complete lack of social responsibility on the government's side. There seems…

Works Cited

Backscheider, Paula R. Moll Flanders: The Making of a Criminal Mind. (Twayne's

Masterwork Studies). Twayne Publishers, 1990.

Defoe, Daniel. The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Famous Moll Flanders. Oxford University Press, 2009.

Dupre, Louis K. The Enlightenment and the Intellectual of Modern Culture. Yale University Press, 2005.

The limitation of slave movement, was an action in response to the growing threat related to fugitive slaves (Selected records relating to slavery in early Virginia, n.d.). The conditions at the time and the harsh regulations concerning black slaves made them go in search for a different life, especially in Northern states (Petition to Governor, Council, and House of epresentatives of Massachusetts, 1773). Therefore, the Southerners were reluctant to offer any liberty that would somehow enable black people to gather and possibly plan insurrections or escape attempts. In addition, the tensions between the slaver states and the free ones were constantly growing because Free states were accusing slave ones of trying to use the slave population to increase its influence in the federal legislative body. In this sense, Northern states were somewhat ready to assist runaway slaves from South states.

Yet another reason, which influenced the way in which slaves…

Reference

Africans in America. (n.d.) "From Indentured Servitude to Racial Slavery." The Terrible Transformation. Available at  http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part1/1narr3.html 

Galenson, David W. (1984). "The Rise and Fall of Indentured Servitude in the Americas: An Economic Analysis." The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 44, No. 1. pp. 1-26.

Jenkins, P. A history of the United States. New York: Palgrave, 1997.

Selected records relating to slavery in early Virginia. N.d. Available at  http://www.fiu.edu/~woodk/vadocs.html

Classicism manifested itself in the 18th century. There are five references used for this paper.

There have been a number of cultural styles over the last centuries from Baroque to Classicism to Romanticism. It is interesting to look at Classicism and determine how it manifested itself in the 18th century.

Classicism

In order to determine the 18th century's manifestation of Classicism, it is important to understand what the term means. Classicism, or Neo-Classicism is used to "characterize the culture of 18th-century Europe, and contrasted with 19th-century Romanticism (unknown, Classicism)." In "art, music, and literature, it is a style that emphasizes the qualities traditionally considered characteristic of ancient Greek and Roman art, that is, reason, balance, objectivity, restraint, and strict adherence to form (unknown, Classicism)."

Music

Ludwig van Beethoven demonstrated Classicism during the end of his life with his string quartets. Beethoven first earned the respect of the Viennese people as…

Works Cited

McLellan, Joseph. Beethoven, on Balance; Ecstatic Beauty Flows Through Borromeo

String Quartet. The Washington Post. (2000): 25 May. Pp. J03.

Unknown. Antiques & Collecting: Dedicated followers of all things. Birmingham Post.

2001): 11 August. Pp. 50.

American Economic Thought in the Seventeenth Century by Edgar AJ. Johnson. (New York: Russell & Russell, 1961). 202 p., (HB119.A2J6).

This book is a global look at what motivated colonization economically in the New World, and how American thought began to diverge from English commerce and economic thought. In the book, the author outlines several common economic and political concepts of pre-Revolutionary philosophy. Mainly, Johnson states political and personal beliefs were not inevitably separate things, but rather social structures dictated by one's political ties and perceptions. In other words, during these times, the most elevated position a person could hold was that of a politician. The basic concepts of the book include that the political structure reflected fundamental social structures, and the people were still largely under the influence of parliamentary representation, and the British Crown consistently oppressed them. Unfortunately, the end of the Revolution did not help matters. In…

Dutch invasion of razil

In the 17th Century razil found itself the centre of contesting and warring European powers. The Portuguese colonization of razil was followed by the invasion from Holland as well as by French attempts to establish a presence in the country. Historians however describe the Dutch invasion of razil in the 17th century as one of the most damaging, imposing and far-reaching occupations of the country. This was mainly due to the well-organized and well-planned nature of the Dutch intrusion.

The Dutch invasion was an attempt not merely at establishing some fortuitous harbors for trade but was colonization in the true sense of the term. One of the obvious reasons was export of natural resources such as sugar.

The Dutch occupation of razil presents a number of pertinent and important questions that will form the fulcrum of the discussion in this paper. These are - the reasons…

Bibliography

Alden, Dauril, ed. Colonial Roots of Modern Brazil: Papers of the Newberry Library Conference. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973.

Alden, Dauril and Warren Dean, eds. Essays concerning the Socioeconomic History of Brazil and Portuguese India. Gainesville, FL: University Presses of Florida, 1977.

Azevedo, Fernando de. Brazilian Culture: An Introduction to the Study of Culture in Brazil. Translated by Crawford, William Rex. New York: Macmillan, 1950.

Barbour, Violet. Capitalism in Amsterdam in the Seventeenth Century. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1950.

Not only was this theme fully explored within the historical context, but thoroughly analyzed within Europe as well. The teachings of such notable thinker as Sigmund Freud points to this direction of development. He concluded that there modernism within Europe had become characterized by the disorder of the mind. More precisely, there was a lack of any fixed system of reference for living and thinking. Europe, which had formerly been the center of intellectual development and revolutionary thinking now suffered under the burden of a weak political infrastructure. As a result, many of their greatest talents and knowledge now flowed away from Europe to other developing nations such as the United States.

The Age of Anxiety was coined not by historian but by Europeans of the age themselves. They reflected upon the disturbing trends that were occurring within European nation-states. It gave rise to radical social, political and scientific ideas…

Alexander Pope and Jonathan Swift are two of the greatest satirists in literature because they capture elements of truth that force us to look at ourselves as a society. hile both authors reflect on political and economic conditions of the eighteenth century, their work is timeless because their topics ultimately return to humanity. Their achievements lie in the fact that they depict man in circumstances that are both thought provoking and amusing. Pope's "The Rape of the Lock" and "The Dunciad," along with Swift's "A Modest Proposal" and Gulliver's Travels demonstrate how satire takes its best form when its target is human nature.

The satirist is quite lucky in that he has many varieties of subjects when it comes to human nature M.H. Abrams observes that in most instances the satirist considers "prevalent evils and generally observable human types, not with particular individuals" (Abrams 2211). This is certainly true with…

Works Cited

Abrams, M.H. "Alexander Pope." The Norton Anthology of English Literature W.W. Norton and Company. pp. 2209-14.

Pope, Alexander. "The Rape of the Lock." The Norton Anthology of English Literature W.W. Norton and Company. pp. 2233-52.

The Dunciad." The Norton Anthology of English Literature W.W. Norton and Company. pp. 2291-6.

Ross, John. Gulliver's Travels. Introduction. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 1948.

17th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was ratified in 1913. It altered the way in which Senators of the Congress were elected. Previously, under Article 1 of the Constitution, it was the state legislature's responsibility to elect senators to Congress. ith the 17th Amendment, however, the voting power was placed directly into the hands of the public. The Amendment also provided a way for states to allow governors to fill vacancies in their state's appointed seats in Congress by temporarily appointing a senator until a time in which a special election could be conducted.

The text of the Amendment states specifically that "two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years" shall be the manner in which senators are now voted into office. This effectively made the process of electing senators more democratic and less representational, in the sense that that the voting public had the…

Works Cited

Bybee, Jahy. "Ulysees at the Mast." Northwestern University Law Review, vol. 91, no. 1

(1997): 530-564.

Zwicki, Todd. "Beyond the Shell and Husk of History." Cleveland State Law Review, vol. 45, no. 1 (1997): 1021-1034.

17th century and our contemporary world began with an early, optimistic outlook of hope and promise of a better future, exemplified by movements like the Enlightenment, the Scientific and Industrial Revolutions, culminating in the Information Age, environmental awareness and globalisation. It is during this period that a paradigm shift from faith (religion) to reason as the principal source of legitimacy and authority occurred (Badger). The shift occurred against the backdrop of ideals such as science, tolerance, liberty, democracy, secularism, free will and humanism. However, the period is also scared with false starts and failures, violent schisms, world wars, imperialism, terrorism, irrational nationalism, extreme religious war, information overload, pollution and the threat of nuclear annihilation that indicate failure of the rational model promised by the Enlightenment. On the premise of this dichotomy of hope and failure, this essay critically demonstrates the failure of the Enlightenment project, especially from a social and…

Boycotting British goods meant that American women were going to have to make sacrifices, and stop consuming goods that were imported from Britain. The cartoon of the women of Edenton, NC signing a non-consumption agreement represent American women involving themselves in the political and economic boycott of Britain by the American colonies. ("A Society of Patriotic Ladies") However, it is actually a criticism of women's involvement in political affairs by representing the women who signed as silly women engaging in silly activities. The entire cartoon is designed to give the impression that women are not able to take on political issues seriously and deal with them effectively. Instead, the women in the cartoon are engaging in sex, playing, drinking, and are generally distracted from the important issue at hand.

orks Cited

"A Society of Patriotic Ladies- North Carolina Digital History." LEARN NC. eb. 14

Oct. 2011. http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/nchist-revolution/4305

2000. Print.

"Laws…

Works Cited

"A Society of Patriotic Ladies- North Carolina Digital History." LEARN NC. Web. 14

Oct. 2011.  http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/nchist-revolution/4305 

2000. Print.

"Laws on Indentured Servants." Virtual Jamestown. Web. 14 Oct. 2011.

... In general, the further East one got, the slower new techniques were to spread. Thus there were supply-side reasons for grain exports from preemancipation eastern Europe to stagnate at a level far below what was ecologically possible" (Pomeranz 258). hile there were distinct differences involved in these regions, there were some commonalities as well.

According to Dean, Hann, Overton and hittle (2004), there remains a paucity of studies concerning the role of women and early economic history based on a misperception that women either did not have a role in the wider economy or that women were affected by economic and social change in the same way as men. An early study that challenged these assumptions conducted of women's work in the seventeenth century divided production into three co-existing types:

Domestic industry." This type of work was done exclusively for the use of the family;

Family industry." This type…

Works Cited

Dean, Darron, Andrew Hann, Mark Overton and Jane Whittle. Production and Consumption in English Households, 1600-1750. New York: Routledge, 2004.

Kheng, Cheah Boon. (1994). "Feudalism in Pre-Colonial Malaya: The Past as a Colonial Discourse." Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 25(2), 243.

Pomeranz, Kenneth. The Great Divergence: Europe, China, and the Making of the Modern World Economy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.

Super, John C. (2002). "Review Essay: Food and History." Journal of Social History, 36(1), 165.

Education of omen in Renaissance

Several methods relating to the education of women in Renaissance changed the world. However, these methods of Humanists and the queries of religious reformers had no impact on the lives of early modern European omen. Education, changing drastically between the 15th and 17th centuries was certainly kept from women although the rich and powerful were able to receive some education: it was not always used. Opportunities arose for the daughters of the rich and wealthy. However, the eventuality of all their efforts in education narrowed down to the typical role of a woman: a housewife. They still faced choices and challenges unique to their gender. hile some women did receive this education alongside men, the options of what to do with that education were cut severely. It is evident from the study that women did not have a Renaissance because of lack of education and…

Works Cited

Bell, Susan G. Women: from the Greeks to the French Revolution. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Pub. Co., 1973. Print 181-209

Rice, Eugene F., and Anthony Grafton. The foundations of early modern Europe, 1460-1559. 2nd ed. New York: W.W. Norton, 1994. Print. 77-109

However, at the same time the onset of what many scholars regard as the first truly national event within the history of the fledgling United States of America took place throughout the 1740's, and indicated that the traditional religious beliefs that mandated a strict following of God would not so easily be overturned. The Great Awakening largely begin when George Whitefield, an Oxford-trained Anglican minster who came to Georgia in 1738, began touring through the lands pronouncing that people had limited time to repent before they were consumed by the fires of hell. This perspective certainly adhered to that which was shared by many of the pilgrims and puritans who initially began the colonies in the 17th century. Jonathan Edwards was another influential factor in this movement, and delivered a number of influential sermons during the early years of the 1740s in which he claimed damnation awaited anyone who would…

Gender

Women occupy conflicted and ambiguous roles in Middle English and enaissance English literature. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, and Shakespeare's Twelfth Night all show how male authors in particular grappled with the role of women in an increasingly patriarchal society. Women feature prominently in each of these stories, even if their status and perceived morality is questionable. Each of these stories features women who have a fair degree of power, albeit expressed within the confines of a patriarchal social and political construct. What's more, the women in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Canterbury Tales, and Twelfth Night create their own power; power is not "given" to them by self-serving benevolent men. In fact, women like Morgan Le Fay, Lady Bertilak, the Wife of Bath, and Viola all wield power effectively. Women and men occupy separate and distinct spheres, and each wields a different type…

References

Arkin, L. (1995). The role of women in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Retrieved online:  http://msuweb.montclair.edu/~furrg/arkin.html 

Chaucer, G. (1475). The Canterbury Tales. Retrieved online: http://www.canterburytales.org/

Shakespeare, W. (1601). Twelfth Night. Retrieved online:  http://shakespeare.mit.edu/twelfth_night/full.html 

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Retrieved online:  http://www.yorku.ca/inpar/sggk_neilson.pdf

17th century, a book inspired by Sir Walter Raleigh and written by Richard Hakluyt, entitled "Western Planting," built up great interest in American colonization. Focus of commercial explorations was possible trade with the East India Company for the West. The King of England formed and granted a royal charter to the London Company and the Plymouth Company (Interesting.com) to found a colony. In December 1606, the London Company, led by Captain Christopher Newport, reached a town and named it Jamestown, after the King of England. It was the first permanent settlement in North America, the whole of which was then Virginia. The first settlers in this new land consisted of 12 laborers, a few carpenters, a blacksmith, a mason, a barber and a tailor and 50 other men.

When Captain Newport returned England for a while and left the colony to the inefficient leadership of Governor Wingfield, trouble and misery…

Bibliography

1. Folk, Stephney. Virginia's Founding Fathers. (accessed 28:03:03). http://www.lineone.net/~fight/Stephney/virginia.htm

2. Garman, Gene. Founding Principles Rejected: Colonial Virginia. 1998 accessed 28:03:03).  http://www.sunnetworks.com/~ggarman/princip.html 

3. Interesting.com. Colonial Virginia. (accessed 28:03:03).  http://www.interesting.com 

4. Jeff. The Founding of Jamestown. The Montague Millennium, 2002.

St. Peter's Basilica is located in Vatican City, and was consecrated in 1626 (Saint). It is among the largest of the world's churches and is considered to be one of the holiest of Catholic sites on the planet. The church's namesake, St. Peter, is buried there, as well, and believed to be located directly below the altar (Saint). There has been a churched located on that site since oman Times, which is part of the reason St. Peter's in seen as so valuable when it comes to architecture and its place in the Catholic Church. Liturgical functions are held there, and it is also a common and very famous place for pilgrimage.

When the Pope gives services there, several times per year, between 15,000 and 80,000 people come out to hear him speak (St. Peter's). Even those who are not Catholic or religious in any way have often heard of…

References

Bannister, Turpin. "The Constantinian Basilica of Saint Peter at Rome." Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 27(1): 3 -- 32. 1968. Print.

Frommel, Christoph. "Papal Policy: The Planning of Rome during the Renaissance in The Evidence of Art: Images and Meaning in History." Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 17(1): 39 -- 65. 1986. Print.

Saint Peter's Basilica. Vatican City State. 2014. Web.

Scotti, R.A. Basilica: the Splendor and the Scandal -- Building of St. Peter's. NY: Plume. 2007. Print.

These were comedies that appealed to the more conservative, middle-class, sentimental, moralistic, and upheld a newly optimistic view of human progress and political development. (ilson & Goldfarb, 1999)

The 18th century view generally held that people are good and that people could retain virtue by appealing to virtuous human feelings as expressed in Sheridan, Goldsmith, and Sir Richard Steele. Thus, this signaled the end of the aristocratic, brittle Restoration hero and heroine. Yet the return of the theater to the people also caused German theatrical aspirants such as Goethe to creator works such as "Faust," ambitious plays that addressed larger spiritual concerns of the people, and political ideologies that spanned far wider than the immediate social concerns of the court. "Faust," for all its pretensions, represents individuals within its characters, such as the heroine Gretchen, who come from ranks beyond the academic and social elites of the French and English…

Works Cited

Baker, Henry Barton. English Actors: From Shakespeare to Macready. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1879.

Bellinger. Martha Fletcher. A Short History of the Theatre. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1927.

Brockett, Oscar and Franklin J. Hildy. History of the Theatre. New York: Longman Press, 2002.

Craig, W.J., ed. "Hamlet." The Complete Works of William Shakespeare. London: Oxford University Press: 1914.

The machines were used to create vertical and horizontal movements which had not been done before. In other words, a god could be pictured using the machine as floating down onto the stage, or boats moving across it. Night or dawn could appear, or ghosts (Lawrenson 92). Most of these machine-plays were produced at the Theatre du Marais. There is a difference here, too. The French machine plays reached the public, whereas the English masques of the early century were performed mainly for royalty. Certainly the stage sets for court ballets and opera were more elaborate and special than the public designs since they were subsidized by the royal coffers.

Both English and French theatre took over the new Italian techniques for changing scenery. The French theatre abandoned triangular prisms used in conjunction with painted backdrops. At the beginning, these were painted simultaneously and dropped over or pulled back to…

Between 1618 and 1648, there was an outbreak of war which was mainly caused by the struggle between a militant Calvinism and a militant Catholicism in fact it was referred to as the "last of the religious wars." Furthermore, prior to, all through, and after this three decades war, a sequence of civil wars and rebellions hit Europe. All this events and problems greatly affected Europe economically, socially, and even politically and actually qualify to be categorized as crises.

Question 2:

For the period of the 16th and 17th centuries, the European society did not respect women at all since they considered them inferior to men both mentally and morally thus were directly linked to witchcraft during the witchcraft craze. To make it worse was the fact that these low estimates were not just held by the witch hunter but also by the elites such as lawyers, theologians, and philosophers.…

References

Cook, et al. (1980). British Historical Facts 1760-1830. London: Macmillan.

Europe in crisis: Social disintegration, war, and revolution (1560-1650). Retrieved in March 1,

2010 from .

This time period also marked a great deal of expansion for different European nations. This expansion occurred through the conquering of certain territories.

Machiavellian Leaders

Machiavelli believed that great leaders had to possess certain attributes. He asserted that a "leader needs an analytical attitude without a sense of shame or guilt. Political calculation is required to control, rather than be victimized by events (Deluga, 2001)." In other words, a Machiavellian leader believes that the end justifies the means. These individual tend to have extremely charismatic personalities and that power to persuade large populations of people that there actions are justified.

The Machiavellian Leaders chosen for the purpose of this discussion will be Elizabeth I, Peter the Great and . Queen Elizabeth I was loved by the people of England to the extent that she had completely loyal subjects. She used her leadership qualities to defeat Spain. In addition she was…

Works Cited

Deluga, R.J. (2001)American presidential Machiavellianism: Implications for charismatic leadership and rated performance. The Leadership Quarterly

Volume 12, Issue 3, Autumn 2001, Pages 339-363

Grell, O. P Bob Scribner. (2002) Tolerance and Intolerance in the European Reformation. Cambridge Press

King Phillip II. Retrieved February 22, from:  http://www.elizabethan-era.org.uk/king-philip-ii-spain.htm

Satan and Paradise Lost

In Paradise Lost by John Milton, Satan represents the royalist, Catholic and aristocratic enemies of the Puritans during the civil wars and religious wars of the 17th Century and reflects the culture and events of the era such as the Renaissance, Reformation and Scientific Revolution. Milton was a Puritan who had supported Oliver Cromwell in the English Civil ar and the overthrow of the king, aristocracy and Church of England. He was disappointed by the outcome of this revolution, and especially with the Restoration of the monarchy and the old order in 1660, which banned and censored many of his writings for being too radical. Not only is it a specifically Christian story of original sin, the fall from grace and hope for redemption, it should be considered as a revolutionary tract from the Puritan-Protestant side during the civil wars and religious wars of the 17th…

WORKS CITED

Milton, John. Paradise Lost, 1674 edition. Dartmouth.edu  http://www.dartmouth.edu/~milton/reading_room/pl/book_1/index.shtml

Hazal Emre

Looking at art and historical artifacts can tell us immense amounts of information regarding the society and culture from which these objects came from. Art can be revealing and informative in the same manner that books can tell readers about history and cultural conventions, many times providing specific details about its origin. These details can then provide viewers with an informed and comprehensive view of cultures and societies. Art is a reflection of not only the artist which creates the piece, but also a reflection of the atmosphere in which the artist lived. These reflections through art can point to specific themes and subjects that were important during the times that these artists lived. Power and Status are themes that can be considered universal in virtually all cultures regardless of their respective geographical location or historical era.

The intention of this essay is to provide the historical background…

Works Cited

"Bis Pole, Arts of Africa, Oceania and The Americas." MetMuseum.org. The New York Metropolitan Museum. Web. 21 Apr. 2011.

Stone, Richard E. "A Noble Imposter, The Foothil Ewer and The Early 19th Century Fakery." Metropolitan Museum Journal 32 (1997). Print.

world's nations and citizens was the Cold ar. Indeed, slave trade was important, and the formation of American colonies in the 17th century has had an enormous impact on the history of the planet. Also the Seven Years' ar and imperialism had enormous implications and impacts. But the years of the Cold ar stand out as more pivotal in terms of the history of the world. This paper will explain why the Cold ar was most important.

Slave Trade: The International Slavery Museum (ISM) explains that European slave traders "forcibly uprooted millions of people" from est African and est Central Africa between the years 1500 to 1900. In particular, the 16th century was a century in which millions of African peoples were forcibly shipped in cruelly over-crowded slave ships to the Americas. These individuals from Africa were "…farmers, merchants, priests, soldiers, goldsmiths and musicians" (ISM). hile crossing the oceans from…

Works Cited

Anderson, Fred. Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North

America, 1754-1766. New York: Knopf Publishing, 2007.

International Slavery Museum. "The trade triangle." Retrieved December 8, 2013, from  http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk . 2008.

Renaissance Art

An Analysis of Love in the Renaissance Art of Sidney, Shakespeare, Hilliard and Holbein

If the purpose of art, as Aristotle states in the Poetics, is to imitate an action (whether in poetry or in painting), Renaissance art reflects an obsession with a particular action -- specifically, love and its many manifestations, whether eros, agape or philia. Love as a theme in 16th and 17th century poetry and art takes a variety of forms, from the sonnets of Shakespeare and Sidney to the miniature portraits of Hilliard and Holbein. Horace's famous observation, ut picture poesis, "as is poetry so is painting," helps explain the popularity of both. Indeed, as Rensselaer . Lee observes, the "sister arts as they were generally called…differed in means and manner of expression, but were considered almost identical in fundamental nature, in content, and in purpose" (Lee 196). In other words, the love sonnets…

Works Cited

Aristotle. Poetics (trans. By Gerald Else). MI: Ann Arbor Paperbacks, 1970. Print.

Greenblatt, Stephen. Will in the World. NY W.W. Norton, 2004. Print.

Hogan, Patrick. "Sidney and Titian: Painting in the 'Arcadia' and the 'Defence.'" The

South Central Bulletin, vol. 27, no. 4. (Winter, 1967): 9-15. Print.

Colonial America: Questions

Puritans

Unlike previous European settlers who came to the New World primarily to make a profit, the Puritans arrived with a commitment to create a new society and genuinely 'settle' on the land. They had no plans to return to England, given that they had been cast out of the Old World because of their religious beliefs. Unlike the settlers at Jamestown, they came prepared to work hard, and did not hope to simply make a quick profit and return to England rich, having done little labor. They believed in the value of hard work as part of their religious philosophy. They believed God had quite literally 'chosen' them to know the truth, which sustained them during times of suffering. During the first years, however, like previous colonists, they did struggle to stay alive. The winter was harsh, and they were forced to adapt their crops and…

References

"5b. Indentured servants." The Southern Colonies. U.S. History. 2012. [1 Feb 2013]

 http://www.ushistory.org/us/5b.asp 

Pearson, Ellen Holmes. "The New World: A Stage for Cultural Interaction." Teaching History.

[1 Feb 2013.]

Norton I Intro on the Restoration

Norton I Introduction on the Restoration and 18th Century

The Period of the 18th Century in England was a time of great expansion and change.

People began moving from the country to the city/town during this time.

New likes were established that varied from the traditional arts scene.

The people living in town began to more openly express their likes/dislikes and the monarch became less an influence in deciding what was appropriate and what was not.

The country of England became divided politically as new parties emerged to represent its citizens.

The Tories supported the Crown, while the Whigs formed with a more progressive outlook and included nobles and clergymen.

The Toleration act provided freedom of worship.

Such acts and provisions would eventually become more commonplace as people began to realize differing viewpoints of the world.

Theories of old such as those of Aristotle…

Bibliography

Norton Anthology of English Literature. "Norton I Introduction on the Restoration and The 18th Century" Norton and Company, pp1715-1725

NAEL, Sept. 29, 2003,  http://www.wwnorton.com/nael/18century/welcome.htm

Agnes Meyer Driscoll

Like Yardley, Agnes Meyer Driscoll was born in 1889, and her most significant contribution was also made during World War I. Driscoll worked as a cryptanalyst for the Navy, and as such broke many Japanese naval coding systems. In addition, Driscoll developed many of the early machine systems. Apart from being significantly intelligent for any person of her time and age, Driscoll was also unusual in terms of her gender. Her interests led her to technical and scientific studies during her college career, which was not typical for women of the time (NA). When she enlisted in the United tates Navy during 1918, Driscoll was assigned to the Code and ignal section of Communications, where she remained as a leader in her field until 1949.

As mentioned above, Driscoll's work also involved remerging technology in terms of machine development. These were aimed not only at creating ciphers,…

Sources

Kovach, Karen. Frank B. Rowlett: The man who made "Magic." INSCOM Journal, Oct-Dec 1998, Vol. 21, No 4.  http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/inscom/journal/98-oct-dec/article6.html 

Ligett, Byron. Herbert O. Yardley: Code Breaker and Poker Player. Poker Player, 3 Oct 2005. http://www.*****/viewarticle.php?id=681

McNulty, Jenny. Cryptography. University of Montana, Department of Mathematical Sciences Newsletter, Spring 2007.  http://umt.edu/math/Newsltr/Spring_2007.pdf 

National Security Agency. Agnes Meyer Driscoll (1889-1971).  http://www.nsa.gov/honor/honor00024.cfm

John Dryden was one of the most important literary figures in the 17th century because he excelled in fiction, nonfiction, and poetry. Dryden was a master of many literary techniques, most particularly the extended metaphor. His poem "Absalom and Achitophel" is a political satire which deals with the then-current political situation in England in a most sly and intelligent way. The piece is an historical allegory wherein the author uses historical events to explore the deeper meaning behind more recent events that have shaped is own society. The rebellion of Absalom against King David is used to parallel the various plots to take over the throne of England through the Exclusion Crisis, the Popish Plot, and the Monmouth Rebellion. Dryden uses the relative safety of the allegory to make a scathing remark about the politics of his country and to subtly recommend ways in which the country could be strengthened…

Works Cited:

Dryden, J. (1889). "Absalom and Achitophel." Macmillan: Oxford, UK. 83-115.

Portugal 16th Century to Present

Portugal

Portugal: 16th Century to Present

Portugal: 16th Century to Present

Portugal is a country a part of the continent of Europe. It is on the western coast of Europe sharing a boundary with Spain and the Atlantic Ocean. Portugal's independence and king (now there is a president and a prime minister) received formal recognition since the 12th century AD. The language is Portuguese and the people identify as Portuguese or of the Portuguese epublic (epublica Portuguesa). It is a mostly Catholic country and with mostly female citizens. There are nearly 11 million people living in Portugal according to the Central Intelligence Agency (2012). The capital city is Lisbon and most of the population lives in urban areas rather than rural areas. There are archipelagos, Azores, and Madeira, which are additionally a part of Portugal. The paper will provide insight into the country of Portugal,…

References:

Central Intelligence Agency. (2012). Portugal. Available from:  https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/po.html . 2012 August 01.

Facts About. (2012) Portugal History and Timeline & Facts. Available from:  http://www.facts-about.org.uk/history-and-events-timeline-portugal.htm . 2012 August 07.

HistoryWorld. (2012). History of Portugal. Available from:  http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab46 . 2012 August 04.

Migration Policy Institute. (2002). Portugal Seeks Balance of Emigration, Immigration. Available from:  http://www.migrationinformation.org/feature/display.cfm?ID=77 . 2012 August 05.

Irony and Humor in French Literature

Delphine Perret's analysis of irony and humor is apparently well-founded and well-supported by famous literature. Due to obvious differences in the French and English notions of irony, Perret explored irony by returning to its roots. Starting "at square one" with definitions of "irony" from notable dictionaries, Perret then traces irony through historical eras and developments with the aid of such great thinkers as Socrates and Aristotle. Her exhaustive analysis results in clearly defined types of irony/humor, basic elements of the phenomenon and dimensions that are or should be present in that form of writing. The intelligence of Perret's examination is illustrated in two famous French plays of the 19th and 20th Century: "Ubu Roi" and "The ald Soprano." Though written by different playwrights in different centuries, both plays fully support Perret's analysis and findings regarding irony/humor.

ody

a. Perret's Applicable Points

Delphine Perret's "Irony"…

Bibliography

Ashton, Dore. "On Blaise Cendrars...But I Digress." Raritan, 31(2) (Fall 2011): 1-42, 164. Print.

Dittmar, Linda and Joseph Entin. "Jamming the Works: Art, Politics, and Activism." Radical Teacher, 89 (Winter 2010): 3-9, 79-80. Print.

Hrbek, Greg. "The Science of Imaginary Solutions." Salmagundi, 170/171 (Spring 2011): 240-252, 280. Print.

Ionesco, Eugene and Donald M. Allen. The Bald Soprano and Other Plays. New York, NY: Grove Press, Inc., 1958. Print.

Clothing and Culture

Clothing, in the modern definition, is considered to be fiber or textiles that are worn on humans, and one of the anthropological features of human culture and society. The type (color, style, fit) of clothing is typically dependent upon a number of variables -- geography, weather, gender, status, physical state, work activities, and even status symbols. From a practical standpoint, clothing serves as protection from external weather, or for safety reasons (constructing, cooking, hiking, sports); it may protect the wearer from flora and fauna (nettles, bites, thorns); it may insulate against hot or cold conditions; and may even provide a hygienic barrier. Often, studying the aspects of clothing and society tells scholars a great deal about the particular culture -- not just in external appearance but in the technology of textile production, weaving, and adornment (oucher & Deslandres, 1989).

Evolution of Clothing Styles: Scholars are uncertain as…

Bibliography

Blum, S. (Ed.). (1982). Eighteenth-Century French Fashion Plates. New York: Dover Publications.

Boucher, F., & Deslandres, Y. (1989). 20,000 Years of Fashion. New York and London: H.N. Abrams.

Delpierre, M. (1997). Dress in France in the 18th Century. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Doyle, W. (2001). The Ancien Regime. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

The conflict evolved and his works burnt in ome, following the Pope's orders gave him the opportunity to extend his efforts of reformation over the entire Northern Europe. His excommunication in 1521 led to the birth of a new church and the separation finally took place.

Calvin, unlike Luther the monk, was a lawyer who came to Geneva to help in the reformation process. At first, his attempts failed, but after being forced to leave the city, he returned and his new philosophical views about the reformed church were accepted by Geneva that became the center of Protestantism in Europe.

Question 3: Was the religiously-framed warfare of the 16th and early 17th centuries avoidable, given the realities of that place and time?

After the first period of the separation between the Catholic and the Protestant Churches that took place peacefully, there came a period of ruthless fights between the two.…

References

Mantin, P. (1992)the Italian Renaissance: Student Book. The Italian Renaissance. Heinemann Humanism. Retrieved: Oct 28, 2008. Available at  http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/REN/HUMANISM.htm 

Discovery and Reformation. Retrieved: Oct 28, 2008. Available at  http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/REFORM/REFORM.HTM

European Voyages of Exploration of the 15th and 16th Centuries

For several centuries following Columbus's historic discovery the North American Continent, pain enjoyed riches from overseas that allowed it to be the most influential country in Europe. Originally inspired by a combination of a quest to prove that he could reach the Far East by sailing west and the desire to reap the rewards of precious metals and spices, Columbus left Portugal for pain, after failing to achieve the support he needed from the king to finance his first voyage (Hayes & Clark, 1966). With the eventual support of Queen Isabella in pain, he managed to stumble onto North and outh America while looking for the Indies. Initially, the silver, gold, and spices imported from the first panish conquests in the Americas enabled pain to become the most powerful nation in Europe.

That happenstance was fortunate for pain, at least…

Stannard, David, E. (1993). American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World. New York: Oxford University Press.

Zinn, Howard. (2003). A People's History of the United States. New York: Harper-

Collins.

mechanics of the mercantilist doctrine from the incipit of the early modern period in Europe, with special focus on the role of the North American colonies in the ritish mercantilist endeavors.

Mercantilism was the leading economical belief system to support the attempts of regimes and great European powers of the 17th century to organize their economic existence. The reasons standing behind mercantilism originated from the need to provide a solid structure for the financial foundation of "the nation-state -- the emerging post-medieval governmental mode that rapidly replaced feudal localism in northern and Western Europe after the mid-fifteenth century" (McCusker, 1996, p. 337), in order to ensure the survival and prosperity of the state. Specifically, nationalism held the promise of political stability and better living prospects for everyone, bringing considerable improvement to the prior era's imbalance.

The majority of early modern Europe countries, starting with Spain, Portugal, and Great ritain, adopted…

Bibliography

Feldmeth, Greg D. "Early British Colonial Trade Regulations" U.S. History Resources. Last modified June 24, 2004. http://home.earthlink.net/~gfeldmeth/USHistory.html

McCusker, John J.. "British Mercantilist Policies and the American Colonies." In The Cambridge Economic History of the United States, edited by Stanley L. Engerman and Robert E. Gallman, 337-363. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 26 April 1996.

According to Ray, those explanations ignore what more recent research has identified as the principal cause of the witchcraft hysteria in Salem: religious paranoia, intolerance, and persecution.

In that regard, Ray details the historical record showing that the principal origin of the Salem Witch Trials was in the intense antagonism on the part of Reverend Samuel Parris toward village residents who refused to join his congregation. For months before the accusations about witchcraft against Tituba, Parris railed against the unconverted as "wicked" and referred to the "chosen" members of his church and those who had "betrayed" it and who sought to destroy his village church and, ultimately, the entire church of England. Ray also notes, significantly, that all of the young girls whose accusations were the initial spark for the witch craze were members of prominent church families. By the time their accusations first surfaced, Parris's audience had been well…

Gender in Mexican Intellectual History

Juana Inez Ramirez de Asbaje, also known as Juana Ines de la Cruz, was an amazing woman in both Latin American and world history. Here was a woman writing in the 17th century who was willing to discuss the sexual practices of the males around her and to criticize them. Being a nun, this was even more out of the ordinary and makes Asbaje an even more extraordinary figure. In the 1600s, a woman's place was at the home either as a servant or as a bearer of children to a proper husband. It was not proper for a female to be educated or to think. For many women who were born with an untimely and unfortunate intellect, the only venue for them to learn was by entering the church. In her "Response to Sor Filotea," she states that as a young girl, Asbaje asked…

Works Cited:

De Cruz, Juana, and Alan S. Trueblood. A Sor Juana Anthology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP,

1988. Print.

English Civil War of the 17th century. Specifically, it will look at what the most important results of the English Civil War were, and how England in 1700 differed from England in 1600. The results of the English Civil War changed England forever, and altered many cultural aspects, from religious to government. Before the Civil War, England was divided from the inside, and after, it was more united, but stronger too, because of a better working relationship between the monarchy and the Parliament.

The English Civil War was really a series of wars fought during the mid-1600s in England, but also exacerbated by battles with the Scottish, the Irish, and the Welsh. In fact, modern historians often refer to the Civil War by several names, including, "Puritan evolution', 'English evolution', and more recently 'British Civil War(s)'" (Ohlmeyer, 1998, p. 16). It was a result of many things, including despotic rule…

References

Cannadine, D. (1995). Chapter 2 British history as a 'new subject.' In Uniting the Kingdom? The Making of British History, Grant, A. & Stringer, K.J. (Eds.) (pp. 12-28). New York: Routledge.

Ohlmeyer, J. (1998, November). The wars of the three kingdoms. History Today, 16.

Bramante Architecture

A fact of history is that enaissance marked a new emerging base towards the already established architecture of antiquity that was rooted in thorough recovery of the past and new inventiveness, but it was because of this that the great cities of Europe gathered much of their form that is admired by the world today. The word renaissance has entered the minds of people with dominant positive connotations of pure genius and renewal. (Campbell, 2004)

enaissance architecture is the architecture of the early 15th to 17th centuries in different areas of Europe which demonstrated a revival of elements of the ancient Greek and oman thought and culture. First established in Florence by Filippo Brunelleschi, the renaissance spread like wild fire to other parts of Italy as well and from there the style was carried to France, England, ussia, Germany and other parts of Europe. (Gromort)

During the enaissance,…

References:

Campbell, G. (2004). Renaissance art and architecture . (1 ed., p. 318). Oxford University

Press, USA.

Gromort, G. Italian renaissance architecture: A short historical and descriptive account.

Hersey, G.L., &, F. (1993). High renaissance art in st. peter's and the vatican, an interpretive guide. University Of Chicago Press.

Puritans and Native Americans

What scholars call the "captivity narrative" has had a remarkable life of its own in American culture: stories about this kind of "captivity" continued to be told as entertainment, in Hollywood films like "The Searchers" or "Dances With Wolves," long after anyone had been abducted by a Native American tribe and held captive. It is worth inquiring why this particular type of story maintains its fascination for an American audience, by returning to where these narratives first came from, and how they were told in the centuries before Hollywood movies existed. In Colonial America, the life of Mary owlandson presents an excellent way to examine the clash of cultures. owlandson was born in England but came to New England as a Puritan colonist: she was then abducted during the "First Indian War" and held for several months before a ransom was paid and she was released…

References

Downing, D. (1981). 'Streams of Scripture Comfort': Mary Rowlandson's Typological Use of the Bible. Early American Literature 15(3), 252-9.

Faery, R.B. (1995). "Mary Rowlandson (1637-1711)." Legacy 12 (2), 121-132.

Rowlandson, M. (1682). A True History of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson, A Minister's Wife in New England. Retrieved from:  http://www.gutenberg.org/files/851/851-h/851-h.htm

"Their superstitions are infinite, their feast, their medicines, their fishing, their hunting, their wars -- in short almost their whole life turns upon this pivot; dreams, above all have here great credit" (Foner 16). There are a number of value judgments within this quotation; almost all of them are negative. The religious beliefs and practices of the Micmac have been reduced to "superstitions" by the priest. hat is revealing is that almost all of the practices of these people -- including their means of providing food and health care and engaging in social conflict, are likened to "dreams." Yet all of these facets of the Micmac that de Brebeuf names are simply different points of culture that exist between the Europeans and the Native Americans. Because they are different, the priest himself does not believe in them and dismisses them as having a basis in fantasy.

It is interesting to…

Works Cited

Foner, Eric. Voices of Freedom. New York: Bantam. 1991. Print.

Cried, You Didn't Listen: A Survivor's Expos of the California's Youth Authority. The paper should be 4 pages in length and should include a brief synopsis of the book. When writing your reaction to this book.

Please concentrate on the topics and questions below:

The impact of abuse on juvenile development.

How the family system affects juvenile development.

How peer relationships and gangs influence juveniles.

Would Dwight's life have been different had he been placed with a relative instead of in juvenile hall?(no separation between child welfare and juvenile justice at this time)

How could the California Youth Authority improve its work with juveniles?

What was your overall reaction to Dwight's story?

Long ago in the dying years of the 17th century, the authors of a satire on human society, called The Roaring Girl, criticized the jail system noting that it was a place that bred criminals rather than reformed…

Interesting it is to note that Dwight's anger is mainly directed at these parents. It is interesting since his parents were, after all, largely helpless and external to the system. Nonetheless, parents are the primordial force of the child's development. Had Dwight's parents, or a caring relative, been there to protect Dwight none of this plausibly may have occurred. Would Dwight's life have been different had he been placed with a relative instead of in juvenile hall? This is difficult to answer. The fact is that the Dwight Edgar Abbott ends his book as voice behind these walls. This is where he is still today.

Source

DE Abott (2006)I Cried, You Didn't Listen: A Survivor's Expose of the California Youth Authority AK Press

Mind, Freedom and Knowledge

Descartes argued that that all humans had both a body and mind, and that the mind was eternal while the body was subject to physical and material laws. The universe was divided between the mind and matter, and the physical world could be explained by mathematical and scientific laws. Hobbes, Locke and other political and philosophical theorists of the 17th Century were also influenced by the new scientific thought of Descartes, Galileo and William Harvey to one degree or another, and had to incorporate them into philosophy (Ryle, p. 251). Ryle denied that any "ghost in the machine" existed, of that the immortal soul somehow operated the physical body. He admitted that explaining the link between bodies and minds was very difficult, although behaviorists had come to understand that expressions indicate moods and emotions, while vision, hearing and motion are all based on sensory inputs being…

Religion

Pilgrimage is a central element in religion. Ancient polytheistic religions like those in Greece and Rome used pilgrimage at certain times of year, often creating massive festivals. hile many pilgrimages have a social dimension, others can be profoundly personal and mystical too. Pilgrimage is inherently difficult, and the travails of the journey are part of the process. It is necessary to undertake pilgrimage as a rite of passage. This is especially true in Islam, in which hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca, is one of the Five Pillars. There are several elements of religious pilgrimage, including the personal, political, and the spiritual.

Motivations for pilgrimage range from a need to prove one's spiritual strength and merit to a need to conform to the dictums of society. In some cases, the pilgrimage serves as an act of communion, prayer, or meditation. Buddhist approaches to pilgrimage, such as those described in Journey…

Works Cited

From the Diary of Ennin, 838-847.

From Journey to the West, or The Monkey-King, 17th century.

Modern Portrait of Xuanzang.

From Naser-e Khosraw, Book of Travels.

Political and eligious Boundaries

Byzantium historically was the eastern side of the oman Empire that was the result of the religious, political and cultural schism that occurred between East and West in the 2nd Century AD. The city of Byzantium, or Constantinople, was located in a major strategic trading area between the Adriatic, Black and Mediterranean Seas. As the Western oman Empire declined, the "New ome," or Constantinople, became a blend of cultures and viable for about a millennium. Most scholars agree that it was the only long-term stable state in Europe that protected most of Western Europe from the emerging Islamic Empire. It was the most advanced economy in the Mediterranean area until the enaissance, with trading networks that extended through most of Eurasia and North Africa, as well as the beginning of the Silk oad. Without this economic power, it is unlikely that there would have been funding…

REFERENCES

Dursteler, E. (2006). Venetians in Constantinople: Nation, Identity, and Coexistence in the Early Modern Mediterranean. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Jacoby, D. (2007). Review of Venetians in Constantinople. The Sixteenth Century Journal. 38 (4): 1156-7.

King, M. (2007). Review of Venetians in Constantinople. Renaissance Quarterly. 60 (1): 155-6.

See: Diamond, J. (2011). Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed: Revised. New York: Penguin Books; Huntington, S. (2011). Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Economic Depression of Europe

An economic depression is more severe than a recession due to the fact that a depression involves drastic decline in a national or international economy, characterized by decreasing business activity, falling prices, and high levels of unemployment.

There were economic depressions in Europe that were experienced before and after the 1870 but with a remarkable difference, being that those that were experienced before the 1870s were less costly in terms of life and resources and took relatively lesser period. Indeed it was a commonplace that every part of Europe experienced one sort of economic depression or the other.

One such economic situation before 1870 was the "little ice age" which began in the late 16th century till around 1950s as indicated by Big Site of History (2011). This was a time when a severe cold that could not be withstood by most crops set in most…

References

Big Site of History (2011). Social Trends in 17th Century Europe: The Problem of Divine-Right

Monarchy. Retrieved July 18, 2011 from  http://bigsiteofhistory.com/social-trends-in-17th-century-europe-the-problem-of-divine-right-monarchy 

Historic UK, (2011). The Great Plague 1665. Retrieved July 18, 2011 from http://www.historic-

uk.com/HistoryUK/England-History/GreatPlague.htm

status of women in the pre and post revolutionary days. The paper also touches upon the current status of women to show how the changes that took place in the 19th century finally affected the life of American women in the 20th century.

THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN AMEICA IN THE 17TH AND 19TH CENTUIES

Women in the United States have worked hard to achieve some sort of equality to their male counterparts in every field of activity. Social economic and political conditions have undergone a massive change since the country attained freedom in 1776. Women were a significantly oppressed section of the society in the 17th and 18th centuries, there were no voting rights for them and they were kept out of armed forces and other businesses. This resulted in lack of economic resources for women, which further lowered their position in the country, as they had to depend…

References

VIRGINIA ROHAN, Staff Writer, AMERICAN HISTORY'S GLASS CEILING., The Record (Bergen County, NJ), 11-07-1999, pp y01

Turshen, Meredith, Missing the miracle. Vol. 14, Women's Review of Books, 01-01-1997, pp 19-20

BEST AND WORST STATES FOR WOMEN EMPHASIZE ECONOMIC & POLITICAL DISPARITIES AMONG STATES., U.S. Newswire, 11-19-2002

Status of women in America,  http://www.iwpr.org

hile Indian women and those of mixed races were certainly lower class citizens, they could easily become elite through their marriage to a white male of Spanish decent (Mabry 1990). Marriage was often seen to transcend any race or class issue, and thus prompted many women to act in non-virtuous ways in order to secure a future (Johnson 1998).

This difference in virtuous intent also relates to the very real danger for women in Bahia who committed acts considered to be sexually outlandish or improper, whether married or single. For married women, the punishment for adultery could include death until 1830. Prior to that time, men who killed their adulterous wives were often acquitted, since they were defending their honor in the eyes of the social system of the time (Caulfield 2000). Further, even single women found to be concubines could be killed by their families, to prevent a loss…

Works Cited

Arrom, Silvia Marina. 1985. The Women of Mexico City, 1790-1857. Stanford, CA: Stanford University.

Burns, Kathryn. 1999. Colonial Habits: Convents and the Spiritual Economy of Cuzco, Peru. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Caulfield, Sueann. 2000. In Defense of Honor: Sexual Morality, Modernity, and Nation in Early-Twentieth-Century Brazil. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Fisher, John. 2003. Bourbon Peru, 1750-1824. Liverpool, England: Liverpool University Press.

The play continues in a similarly tragic manner as all the children are shot without having any real guilt to defend themselves against. The play ends symbolically with Mother Courage pulling the cart in which there are now fewer supplies and no children, an overwhelming imagistic that the war practically takes away everything you have dear and leaves you empty.

While recht's play is very direct and uses a lot of imagery in order to describe the tragedy of Europe during the war, Montaigne uses, in fact, a parallel analogy by describing, in fact, the cannibals and wars in that society. His description of the devastation of wars in Europe during his time (Montaigne dies at the end of the 16th century, so he is not able to live and describe the Thirty Years War) are in fact comparisons of wars in another society.

According to his work "Of Cannibals,"…

Bibliography

1. Bertolt Brecht: Collected Plays, vol. 5. Vintage Books, 1972

2. de Montaigne, Michel. On Cannibals.1580. On the Internet at http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~wldciv/world_civ_reader/world_civ_reader_2/montaigne.html. Last retrieved on June 21, 2009

For Marx, of course, economics and class conflicts were the base of society, and social change proceeded through revolutions, such as the French, American and English evolutions against feudalism in the 17th and 18th Centuries. In the future, capitalism would be overthrown by a socialist revolution, starting with the most advanced industrial economies in the West (Greene, p. 200). Comte argued that sociology should be concerned with the "laws of social evolution," though, and that science and technology had undermined traditional religion and the feudal social order. Society evolved in three distinct stages, theological, metaphysical and positive, with positivism representing urban, industrial society (Greene, p. 204).

Conclusion

Plato, Augustine and Descartes were the most important dualist philosophers in history, and all of them valued the mind and immortal soul far more than the physical body or the material universe. This view was dominant until the era of the Scientific evolution…

REFERENCES

Augustine (2006). Confessions. Penguin Classics.

Gil, C. (1999). Plato: The Symposium. Penguin Classics.

Greene, John C. "Biological and Social Theory in the Nineteenth Century: August Comte and Herbert Spencer" in John Offer (ed). Herbert Spencer: Critical Assessments of Leading Sociologists, Volume 2. Routledge, 2000: 203-26.

Descartes, R. (1996). Meditations on First Philosophy. Cambridge University Press.

history slavery North Atlantic British colonies United States

Observations egarding Slavery

One of the primary methods of resistance for people of African descent who existed in servitude in the North Atlantic British colonies and in the United States was rebellion. Although far from occurring frequently, armed, violent revolt from chattel slaves helped to shape the history of their descendants in these locations. One of the most notorious of these uprisings was known as the Southampton Insurrection led by Nat Turner in Virginia's Southampton County in August of 1831. The effect of Turner's armed insurrection, and those of others in the Southern United States and in other North Atlantic British colonies can be evidenced in the amended legislature which ultimately influenced the future and perception of both slaves and former slaves for several years to come.

Turner's 1831 rebellion was just the latest in the lengthy list of historical uprisings slaves…

References

Dr. Thomas C., Parramore (1998). Trial Separation: Murfreesboro, North Carolina and the Civil War. Murfreesboro, North Carolina: Murfreesboro Historical Association, Inc.. p. 10

"Nat Turner's Rebellion," Africans in America, PBS.org. Retrieved from  http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3p1518.html 

Aptheker, H. (1943). American Negro Slave Revolts. 5th edition. New York, NY: International Publishers.

Cullen, Joseph P. "Bacon's Rebellion," American History Illustrated, Dec 1968, Vol. 3 Issue 8, p.4

The trading situation between Great ritain and China in the early part of the 18th century continued to expand, yet the ritish were not satisfied and wanted to possess the ability to trade at any Chinese port and with any entity it wished. In 1793, the first formal diplomatic mission arrived in China under the leadership of Lord Macartney, a man often described as having a powerful influence on trade in India and with a vast knowledge of Eastern sensibilities. Macartney's main objective was to devise a treaty for a fair exchange of diplomatic representatives and the opening of all Chinese ports to ritish shipping while creating a set of tariff duties which were to be vigorously enforced in every Chinese port.

Unfortunately, Macartney's mission to China did not turn out as he had expected, for he was rebuffed by the emperor. In 1816, another attempt to establish formal trading…

Bibliography

Gregory, J.S. The West and China Since 1500. New York: Macmillan, 1999.

Mungello, David E. The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500 to 1800. New York: Rowman & littlefield, 2000.

Self-Images in Baroque Art

'Baroque' is a word that is employed to describe 17th- and early 18th- century European art. The art form signified a shift from Renaissance art's classism and linearity (though a few artists from that period carried on with creating artworks in the older style). Baroque was also characterized by a shift towards drama, motion, theatricality, unpredictability, and impulse. This style thrived in many areas of the European continent including Italy, Spain, Flanders, and the Netherlands, and was marked by some common elements despite the existence of major distinctions between regions and artists. Baroque sculptures and paintings were structured around unpredictable diagonal lines, instead of the traditional pyramid or triangle.[footnoteRef:1] Self-portraits grew into a progressively ambitious form that took the aspects of self-awareness and self-promotion to new heights.[footnoteRef:2] In this paper, three Baroque self-images will be discussed, namely, Rembrandt, 1660; Salvatore Rosa, 1647; and Anthony van Dyck,…