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Theories of Crowding: Three main models (Evans and Lepore 1992) are behavioral constraints, control, and overload arousal. Behavioral constraints happen when one has difficulty completing a task due to crowding. The control theory holds that either a condition in the environment or a predisposing variable explain crowding. Stress models, including overload/arousal models see a bombardment of the senses as contributing to the feeling of being crowded, and therefore causing stress. Although the control model fits under both the moderator and mediator designations, the other two models fit either the moderator or mediator designation. Negative outcomes are explained by both the constraint and the overload/arousal models.

Practical Effects of Crowding: It is important to keep in mind that short-term effects of crowding do not necessarily correlate to long-term effects of crowding. Although there are a plethora of short-term studies, there have been no conclusive multigenerational studies. Crowding can result in physical symptoms such as sweating, sickness, and increased heart rate and blood pressure. In some situations men are more sensitive, and in others women are more sensitive. Children are more susceptible than adults, and lower income children are most effected.

Conclusions: Most studies have failed to address long-term results of crowding. The definition of crowding is not concrete. The social density concept is used to explain crowding even though it is known that there are other mitigating factors such as one's culture or predisposing factors which may change one's perception of feeling crowded. Most theories stress mediator or moderator effects to explain crowding. Competition increases the feeling of being crowded, causes intolerance of others, and causes people to treat their environment with less consideration.