Criminology
Theories and Theorists
Theorists in the field of criminal justice:
Howard Becker and Robert Agnew
The field of sociology has been extremely influential in shaping our concept of criminal justice in the 20th century. Rather than focusing on biological or moral theories of why people commit crimes, criminology has begun to place more emphasis on how social pressures may shape the decision of an individual to engage in criminal behavior or to eschew it. Two of the most popular theories exemplifying this phenomenon are that of social labeling theory and strain theory.
Howard Becker's social labeling theory first rose to prominence during the 1960s. Becker suggested that criminals were not essentially different from other persons in the sense that they were more 'wicked' or pathological. Rather, society labels certain persons (because of race, sexuality, poverty, or other behaviors) as different. Rather arbitrarily, certain persons are deemed members of potentially 'criminal elements.' Alienated from mainstream society for various reasons, members of these groups come to see themselves as different and therefore internalize the sense that they are rule-breakers. In his book Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance, "Becker (1963) uses the term 'outsider' to describe a labeled rule-breaker or deviant that accepts the label attached to them and view themselves as different from 'mainstream' society" (Howard Becker's labeling theory, 2013, FSU). Certain groups may be seen as inherently deviant, such as young African-American males, the poor, or even simply juveniles who do poorly in school. Eventually, the member of the labeled group may begin to engage in deviant actions because they are denied the positive social reinforcements of being in mainstream society. They may come to embrace the deviant label as a source of identity.
Rules are created, not because they are inherently right or wrong, but because...
"Rules are created by a moral entrepreneur, a person that takes the initiative to crusade for a rule that would right a society evil (Becker 1963)…The success of the crusade may lead to the entrepreneur to become a professional rule creator (Becker 1963). Becker (1963) states that the success of each moral crusade brings along with it a new group of outsiders, and a new responsibility of an enforcement agency" (Howard Becker's labeling theory, 2013, FSU). Of course, one objection to that theory might be that rules form a social function -- we need rules protecting us from the threat of murder or our property being taken. While this is true, Becker would point out that the penalties allotted to specific crimes do seem to serve certain social groups' interests more than others.
For example, white collar crimes are penalized less than blue collar crimes. Someone who commits fraud or insider trading might do just as much (if not more) economic damage than someone who robs a bank or bodega, but because of the fact that members of the more powerful social groups are more likely to engage in white collar crime, it is treated less harshly. Similarly, for many years, users of 'crack' cocaine received harsher sentences than users of powder cocaine, although the drug has the same effect. Poor persons tended to use crack, however, versus wealthier users. Thus, crack dealers and addicts were labeled as more deviant, and more apt to be driven into membership of the permanent criminal class.
Another influential theory in the field of criminal justice is that of Robert Agnew's General Strain Theory, as articulated in A revised strain theory of delinquency, which likewise stressed how social forces create the definitions of what constitutes a crime. Agnew's theory in the 1990s questioned earlier 'strain' theories which suggested that when people's aspirations were not being fulfilled and they perceived other…
