Achievement Gap \"Go Into Any

Achievement Gap

"Go into any inner-city neighborhood, and folks will tell you that government alone can't teach kids to learn.

They know that parents have to parent, that children can't achieve unless we raise their expectations and turn off the television sets and eradicate the slander that says a black youth with a book is acting white."

Barack Obama, Keynote Address, Democratic National Convention, 2004

(Fryer, 2006, ¶ 1).

Literature Review Organization

The researcher's engagement with the literature, according to Henry N. Kemoni (2008), PhD, Senior Lecturer at the School of Information Sciences, Moi University, Kenya, in the report, "Theoretical framework and literature review in graduate records management research," factors into whether or not the literature review proves successful. In writing their literature review chapter, choosing an appropriate framework for the research often proves challenging. Literature Reviews (2007) notes that options for the meeting the challenge of fitting the right frame to the study include the following five strategies:

1. Chronological

2. Methodological

3. Thematic

5. By trend. (Literature Reviews, 2007)

To fill the purpose for this study's literature review, the researcher chose to utilize the thematic strategy as the organizational method for the literature review's body. Kemoni (20080 stresses: "The principle purpose of a literature review is to establish the academic and research areas that are of relevance to the subject of the research (Records management section, ¶ 5). The three themes relevant to the achievement gap, evolving from the literature which the researcher summarizes and synthesizes during this chapter include:

1. Achievement Challenges and Concerns

2. Causes Contributing to Achievement Gap

3. Overcoming Achievement Gap

As noted in this study's introduction, this study focuses on causes contributing to the contemporary achievement gap, which according to research, significantly impacts the achievement gap between black and white students. The following definitions relating to race apply to this study:

Black: A person having origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa.

White: A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, North

Africa, or the Middle East. (National Center for Education Statistics, 2009,

Race/Ethnicity section, ¶ 3)

There are a number of factors to be researched concerning the achievement gap between African-American and Caucasian students. These factors include such things as resource allocation and how it affects those that receive less as compared to those that receive additional resources, how low teacher expectations can be effecting results from students who realize that the expectations are low (or high), academic stereotyping and the subliminal effects it is having on students, and last, but certainly not least, teacher quality or lack thereof. The educational environment in which the students find themselves is also perceived as an important factor in the level of success for many students.

There have been a number of studies conducted during the last several decades that present various reasons for the achievement gap between black and white students, and a large number of decisions have been made using the data as presented by those studies. In the past the common perception may have been that certain students, or groups of students may have been less likely to achieve success due to their membership in that group. Stereotyping to that degree might even be a harbinger for the lack of success. A 2007 study found that "stereotype threat effects occur when members of a stigmatized group perform poorly on a task because they fear confirming a negative stereotype that is associated with their ingroup" (Spencer & Castano, 2007, p. 419). If members of a group feel that they are being looked down upon or castigated for being a part of that group, they may be acting out in the specific manner for which they are being looked down upon in the first place.

LITERATURE REVEALS

David Gardner (2007), head teacher for Explorations in Math, a nonprofit group working with the Seattle schools, points out that throughout most of America's history, funding disparities between white schools and the schools which serve blacks have been significant. In the journal article, "Confronting the achievement gap," Gardner notes that in Black America (originally published in 1929), Scott Nearing) documented numerous disparities existing in the South during the 1920s. "For example, in 1927, South Carolina spent $2.74 per 'Negro' student and $27.88 per white student. Or even more astoundingly, Mississippi counties in 1926 averaged $3.59 a year per black student as opposed to $68.15 per white student" (Gardner, ¶ 7). In eight southern cities, according to Nearing, white children had access to 162 kindergartens, which black children could only attend eight.

Achievement Challenges and Concerns

"What is the achievement gap and why should I care?" (2009), a relevant contemporary article title, simultaneously poses a powerful pertinent problem question. The U.S. Department of Education defines the achievement gap as: "The difference in academic performance between different ethnic groups" (What is the…, 2009, ¶ 1). The achievement gap, however, constitutes a multifaceted problem that mandates investigations from numerous perspectives. Educators attending a SEDL-sponsored networking forum for mathematics and science educators, assert that the achievement gap includes the following definitions:

"The difference between a child's potential and his/her actual achievement."

"The acceptance of mediocrity in expectations, values, and people."

"The unacceptable difference in achievement & #8230; and academic resources."

(What is the…, 2009, ¶ 3).

Since the early 1990s, the primary National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) program has evaluated student reading and mathematics performance, which reflects the extent student performance in these two subjects has changed over time. This documentation includes the achievement gaps noted between White and Black students.

In reading, the achievement gap between White-Black 4th-graders was smaller in 2007 than in any previous assessment…. In 2007, at the 4th-grade level, Blacks scored, on average, 27 points lower than Whites (on a 0 -- 500 scale). At 8th grade, there was no measurable difference in the White-Black & #8230;reading achievement gaps in 2007 compared with 1992 or 2005. In 2007, at the 8th-grade level, Blacks scored, on average, 27 points lower on the reading assessment than Whites

In mathematics, the achievement gap between White-Black 4th-graders was lower in 2007 than in 1990 (26 vs., but there was no measurable change over the last two years…. Among 8th-graders, a similar trend existed in & #8230;the White-Black…score gaps: increases occurred in the 1990s before decreasing to the current levels, which are not measurably different from those in 1990. The White-Black 8th-grade mathematics gap was lower in 2007 than in 2005…. (National Center for Education Statistics, 2009, Supplemental Notes section)

Table 1 evolves from information the U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics relates and notes gaps for Whites and Blacks in average reading and mathematics scores by grade during various years from 1990 -- 2007.

Table 1: White-Black and White-Hispanic Gaps (adapted from National Center for Education Statistics, 2009, Learner Outcomes section).

Subject, race/ethnicity, & grade

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2003

2005

2007

Reading

White-Black gap

Grade 4

32

38

32

34

30

31

29

27

Grade 8

30

30

26

27

28

28

27

Mathematics

White-Black gap

Grade 4

32

35

34

31

27

26

26

Grade 8

33

40

41

40

35

34

32

In the study, "Black, white and brown," Neil Foley (2004), Associate Dean of the College of Liberal Arts, at the University of Texas at Austin, asserts that the color line continues to be purposefully drawn between black and white, even though immigration and high fertility rates among the newer immigrants have contributed to major changes in the diversity in the U.S. Educators continue to experience concern about the diminishing pool of blacks who fall behind most in rates of high school graduation. The 2000 census reported that of the approximately 1.2 million black…eighteen-year-olds in the United States, only about 631,000, approximately half, graduated from high school. Only 24% of all black U.S. 18-year-olds met the minimum qualifications to attend college (Foley, 2004, ¶ 8).

Sonja Ralston Elder (2007), Duke University School of Law, asserts in the journal article, "Standing up to legislative bullies: Separation of powers, state courts, and educational rights," that family education and income levels continue to denote the best predictors for a child's future academic success. "Nationwide, minority students were only two-thirds as likely to graduate from high school as white students" (Elder, ¶ 3). Results from the study, "A comparison between African-American and white students enrolled in an equal opportunity program on predominantly white college campuses: Perceptions of the campus environment," conducted by Calvin D. Phillips (2005), PhD., Department of Educational Leadership, Counseling and Postsecondary Education, University of Northern Iowa, indicate even more negative statistics confirming the academic gap. "According to the National Education Association Higher Education Research Center the graduation rate of African-American students within a six-year period at four-year institutions is 45.7% in comparison to White students 66.8%" (Phillips, ¶ 2).

Low academic achievement adversely affects all aspects of society. Disparities in educational attainment contribute to disparities in household income. This in turn contributes to individuals being "poorer, less well educated, and more in need of numerous forms of state services" which consequently, figuratively and literally costs other individuals. The achievement gap also may ultimately negatively affect the U.S. As it may cause the nation to become less competitive in the increasingly global communities (What is the…, 2009). In addition, research indicates that the achievement gap contributes to students who more likely grow up to be unemployed, incarcerated, and poor. Consequently, a quality education proves critical for Black children (Elder, ¶ 3).

Causes Contributing to Achievement Gap

Causes contributing to the achievement gap between Blacks and Whites include educational targets increasingly annually, shifting demographics in the U.S., and the forthcoming addition of science targets. These and other factors such as teacher expectations, stereotyping, allocation of resources, high-quality teachers, and environment contribute to potential risks for increases in the achievement gap (What is the…, 2009, ¶ 2).

Gloria Ladson-Billings (2007), PhD, University of Wisconsin-Madison, reports that some perceive the achievement gap as merely one of student achievement; that the student does not fulfill his/her part. Ladson-Billings asserts in the journal publication, "Pushing past the achievement gap: An essay on the language of deficit," that the increasing pressure to achieve, stimulated by standardized testing, will likely contribute to high performing students continuing to excel. Both Black and Hispanic/Latino 17-year-olds reflect the largest gaps in testing. A number of other contemporary "gaps" that plague Black poor children include the following school funding gaps:

Chicago Public Schools spends about $8,482 per pupil while nearby Highland Park spends $17,291 per pupil. Chicago Public Schools have an 87% Black and Latino population while Highland Park has a 90% White population.

Per pupil expenditures in Philadelphia are $9,299 for its 79% Black and Latino population while across City Line Avenue in Lower Merion the per pupil expenditure is $17,261 for a 91% White population.

New York City Public Schools spend $11,627 per pupil for a student population…72% Black and Latino, while suburban Manhasset spends $22,311 for a student population that is 91% White. (Ladson-Billings, 2007, ¶ 6)

Academic outcomes reviews reflect significant differences in achievement related to ethnicity, Alexis Miranda, Linda Webb, Greg Brigman, and Paul Peluso (2007), all with Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, report in "Student success skills: A promising program to close the academic achievement gap for African-American and Latino students." During 2005, the U.S. Department of Education notes that 39% of Whites and 12% of Black were deemed proficient in reading by the end of eighth grade. At the end of eighth grade, 39% of White, and only 9% of Black students were deemed proficient in math.

In the journal article, "Winning methods of teachers who close the gap between black and white students," Johnnie Mckinley (2006), Director of achievement and equity for the Puyallup (Washington) School District, notes than numerous researchers highlight the achievement Black and poor minority students accomplished when their teachers implement "reflective approaches grounded in teacher effectiveness research and culturally responsive pedagogies. In fact, & #8230;these teachers adapt their knowledge, philosophies, instruction, and contextual features to students' cultures, needs, learning preferences, and prior experiences" (Mckinley, 2006, Conclusion section, ¶ 1). As effective teachers recognize their students' interests, needs, talents and working habits, they in turn, apply that knowledge to develop and implement lessons that plan for their students to make relevant individual progress.

Stephanie Hatheway (2006), an English Language Arts Teacher at Washington High School in Massillon, Ohio, reviews the book by Richard Rothstein, "Class and schools - using social, economic, and educational reform to close the black-white achievement gap." Hatheway notes the "Tennessee value-added assessment system" "separates the influence of teachers on the achievement gap from the child's family background, health and academic potential…a new twist for public school educators because only some of the blame could be placed on teachers for low achievement" (¶ 5). "No excuses" schools, Hatheway explains, are not actually what they appear. Hatheway reports that Rothstein places the responsibility for the education of all youth on all of society. The book's five chapters include the following:

1. Chapter One relates "historical background of the achievement gap, misunderstandings about the concept, genetic factors, social class, health care, cultural and even housing differences that affect student performance" Rhetorical questions help to analyze whether cultural background or society explain discrepancies in academic achievement. The most startling facts from this chapter are statistics about the size of the vocabulary of the middle-class kindergartener being raised in a home with college educated parents, compared to the vocabulary of the Black kindergartener from the home of non-degreed parents. The middle-class child begins school with a vocabulary equivalent to that of the lower-class Black adult. (Hatheway, 2006, ¶ 4).

2. Chapter Two explains how some schools "beat the demographic odds" when it comes to student achievement gaps, and within the chapter examples of the schools are given.

3. Incorrectly holding schools accountable for closing the achievement gap is the main crux of Chapter Three. Defining proficiency, aligning tests, standards and instruction makes up most of this chapter. Particular attention could be given to comments about how standardized tests fail to test higher level thinking skills of students. Rainy days, hungry students, illness or even a small school population may statistically affect test results. Scores from annual tests do nothing to close the achievement gap, Rothstein contends, because these tests are politically motivated, they still can never equalize the differences between social classes in students.

4. Non-cognitive skills such as courage and citizenship seemed to be important qualities that students need to learn in school. But how can these characteristics be measured by one standardized test? The correlation between leadership, democratic participation, and employability is highly valued according to employers, but as Chapter four states, "Some education critics mock schools for trying to teach self-esteem rather than concentrating on academics" (Rothstein, p. 111). Curriculum that focuses on employable character traits is not being taught in school anymore, yet there is a demand for high school graduates with these skills. Black students seem to lack these skills and employers often say they do not have personality traits for the workforce. Work ethic is not tested on standardized tests, so school reform is needed to address these societal and economic issues.

5. Chapter Five focuses on ways to fix the growing achievement gap between Black and White students. Special attention should be given to the section on the late Senator Daniel Moynihan and the social policies he wanted to create to close this gap. This chapter gives some concrete, albeit political, choices that must be made in this country if we are serious about putting Black and White students on equal educational footing. Reforms such as raising median family income levels, stable housing, community health clinics, summer enrichment programs, early childhood education, and after school programs wilt help to secure success for lower performing Black students. (Hatheway, 2006, ¶ 5-8).

Hatheway (2006) recommends that educators who deal with Black and other low socio-economic status student read Rothstein's book as it clearly relates vital information for helping socially -economically disadvantaged Black youth overcome the achievement gap. Teacher Expectations

The teacher accused her cousin of cheating when she earned an A on a test, one African-American high school student/participant explained in an interview in the study. "African-Americans in schools: Tiptoeing around racism," by Carol Rozansky-Lloyd (2005), PhD., University of Nebraska at Omaha. Rozansky-Lloyd reports that results from her phenomenological approach study, part of a larger qualitative study examining a number of the complexities related to a number of mathematics and science achievement, highly correlated with students' race, indicate that many children who "fail" in schools possess knowledge contrary to what educators expect. Rozansky-Lloyd argues that for these students to overcome the achievement gap, the educators have to begin to "see" these students through in light of their cultural difference.

Rozansky-Lloyd 92005) stresses that when teachers expect Black students to be low achievers, they may actually see what they expect. One middle school math teacher agreed: "It's like writing a detention or referral beforehand. You're just assuming that kid is going to be bad that period or day. You can't do that" (Rozansky-Lloyd, ¶ 1). Numerous other informants who participated in the funded project to increase the achievement of Black students in mathematics and science and decrease the achievement gap between the Black students and other student groups of students, agreed. When educators listen to what students have to say and expect the student's best, students more likely listen to educators and exert their best efforts. When teachers traditionally demonstrate respect for African-American culture and particularly for their students, they more regularly effectively teach these previously low-achieving Black students. They effective teacher also knows how to implement successful practices and also adjust practices which prove to not be as successful.

Stereotyping

The individual having some modicum of control over situations like stereotyping in the educational setting is oftentimes the teacher. How the student's perceive the teacher's actions will often either encourage or discourage attempts at success. "For example, the pity felt by a teacher might prompt his or her offering of a reward or unsolicited help, even when a student is engaged in an easy task" (Clark & Artiles, 2000, p. 77). The study conducted by Clark and Artiles showed that teacher reactions might be sending low-ability cues to the students. The results from such cues, according to their study, were that the child could be forming a negative view of his or her own competence as a student. Interestingly enough, the same study showed that, "conversely, teacher anger and subsequent punishment following a negative outcome may be interpreted by the child as cues that he or she is in control of the academic outcome and, thereby, a competent student" (Clark & Artiles, p. 78).

Stigmatizing a student, either by stereotyping or by showing disdain for their accomplishments is likely to take a certain toll on the student and quite often will lead to less enthusiastic efforts by the students. This is certainly true for groups as well as individuals in educational settings. A good example might be deaf individuals in China who oftentimes face a lack of higher educational opportunities based upon the perception that such opportunities might be wasted efforts. In China, early childhood educational opportunities tend to focus on speech and hearing.

"Elementary and secondary school curricula reflect low expectations for deaf students and lack the same academic content provided to hearing students" (Lytle, Johnon, & Hui, 2006, p. 458). Low expectations may lead to low success rates, and with little or no educational support for deaf students in China it is no wonder that many deaf individuals there are shut out of future opportunities. The study by Lytle, Johnson and Hui found that "there are no deaf teacher preparation or interpreter training programs" (p. 458) and that fact alone could be why so many of the Chinese deaf flounder in the real world. Lytle's study found that environment to be a changing one as Chinese leaders slowly realized the advantages gained by including all members of their society in the educational process. The same could be true of the differences between African-Americans and Caucasians in America.

Mary J. Fischer (2007), Assistant Professor of Sociology at the University of Connecticut, investigates racial differences regarding student adjustment to college. In the journal publication, "Settling into campus life: Differences by race/ethnicity in college involvement and outcomes," Fischer asserts Black students traditionally earn lower grades prior to and during college and that they more likely discontinue their college education. Fischer finds that "It would seem that race and ethnicity have a fundamental impact on how college is experienced by minority students and therefore their adjustment process cannot be assumed to be the same [as the White experience]" (Mediating Factors…section, ¶ 2). Negative stereotypes about the Black's intellectual may contribute to their academic underperformance.

Roland G. Fryer (2006), assistant professor of economics, Harvard University, purports in the journal publication, "Acting white': The social price paid by the best and brightest minority students," asserts in the past "acting white" served as a scholars used to "characterize academically inclined, but allegedly snobbish, minority students who were shunned by their peers" (Fryer, ¶ 2). Some Black teens ridicule their Black peers when they engage in behaviors Blacks perceive to be characteristic of whites. A number of these stereotyped behaviors directly link to academic engagement. As President Barack Obama suggests, the fact that reading a book or earning good grades may be perceived as "acting white," however, elevates this issue to a matter of national concern.

Negative peer-group pressure currently constitutes one common explanation for the black-white achievement gap. "If minority students & #8230;deliberately underachieve in order to avoid social sanctions, that by itself could explain why the academic performance of 17-year-old African-Americans, as measured by the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), has deteriorated since the late 1980s" (Fryer, 2006, The meaning of…section, ¶ 2). This rationale also helps account for the shortage of minority students attending a number elite colleges and universities.

Allocation of Resources

Sowden also showed that curriculum choice is oftentimes determined by expectations for further schooling and prior academic achievement. According to the article, both factors can be influenced by the presence of a good role model.

Another factor to consider is the curriculum choice itself, as well as the resources allocated to the various students, departments and schools. Economically speaking, many parts of the country are experiencing cutbacks in personnel as well as in funds. The allocation of funding to schools is a hot subject and school systems and districts are looking for creative ways to pay for some of the programs deemed necessary for student improvement. Allocating monies to the various schools will often be the difference between success and failure for a number of students. Once method that is being used with some degree of success is the student-weighed allocation rather than traditional staff-based allocation policies. One article defines this type of allocation in the following manner, "student-weighted allocation uses student need, rather than staff placement, as the building block of school budgeting" (Miles & Roza, 2006, p. 41). Considering student needs when balanced against other forms of funding allocations might seem the most simple method for allocating funds, but the question remains, "who decides student needs?" Miles and Roza say that using caution in regards to fiscal equity is imperative "in part because it does not address human resource capacity, the concentration of high and low-needs students, and school-level flexibility in the use of resources" (p. 42).

It is not only the allocation of resources that makes any difference between success and failure but how those resources are used once they have been allocated. Having the funds to support various educational endeavors does not necessarily spell success. Although having the funds available is helpful, determining where those funds are being spent, and that the funds are spent in the most efficient and effective manner is also part of the process in determining success and failure. One recent article espouses an approach taken by Edison Schools, Inc. that provides an interesting basis for the accountability of allocations. The article states, "Edison's approach to managing schools is comprehensive…simultaneously addressing both the resources and assistance provided to schools and the accountability systems under which school staff operates" (Marsh, Hamilton, & Gill, 2008, p. 423). Allocating resources without accountability of how those resources are spent often makes no sense at all, and just as often results in poorly developed educational curricula and students who suffer for that reason. Other studies have found that spending additional resources on various programs affect not only the programs themselves but the student's participation levels as well.

A 2005 study finds that "administrative expenditures are negatively reflected in student engagement" (Ryan, 2005, p. 235). Student engagement can oftentimes be the key to a program's success and should be taken into consideration.

If higher expenditures show a direct correlation between student engagement (or lack thereof) then it might make sense to see why such correlation exists.

Allocating resources, stereotyping, curriculum all affect the educational environment of the students, but as stated above, certain individuals in the classroom will have an impact on the success and failure of students more than perhaps any other factor. The individual most likely to have greater influence than any others are the classroom teachers. These individuals can be a determining factor on the motivation levels of the students, on whether the students will try or not try, and on whether the students succeed or fail. A recent study shows that "access to good teaching is a major factor in student learning, and American schools -- and American achievement gaps -- require good teaching now more than ever" (Sykes, & Dibner, 2009, p. 588). The same article touts the fact that since supplying qualified teachers to all schools is a critical concern then it is important that the federal government have an important role to play. These types of statements are well-meaning but misguided. Using the much-maligned No Child Left Behind (NCLB) act as an example, according to most 'experts' in the media, it was a complete flop, yet it was also one of the most costly educational endeavors ever created by the federal government. Did the NCLB help reduce the achievement gap? Not according to those same experts. What it did do was require more accountability instead of less. If a higher degree of accountability is not the answer then perhaps the expectations should be taken to a more direct identity.

Maureen Neihart (2006), a licensed clinical child psychologist in Laurel, Montana, contends that race cultures introduce contradictions that thwart the some gifted students' efforts. Because Black students, for example, drop out of school more frequently than Whites, the race factor may directly counter their success. In the publication, "Dimensions of underachievement, difficult contexts, and perceptions of self: Achievement/affiliation conflicts in gifted adolescents," Neihart notes that "students in the lowest ability classes are more likely than students in other classes to have poorly trained teachers, inappropriate curriculum, and insufficient resources" (¶ 6). Current research indicates that students who are void of understanding racism as societal phenomena traditionally internalize their negative experiences.

High-Quality Teachers

Along with demanding more from the students, perhaps there should be more demanded from the teachers as well. Training teachers to accomplish a goal or achieving a certain standard might make even more sense than training students to pass exams. Certainly it could do less harm.

It is imperative then that the teachers in the classrooms be of the highest quality that can be expected. This is true in almost all situations and a recent study verifies these results by stating "education needs to broaden the dialogue to address not only the shortages but the quality of faculty" (Schirmer, 2008, p. 412). Training teachers to be good teachers is at best a difficult task, and there are a wide variety of teaching methods currently being touted. One of those methods is collaboration. Teachers who collaborate in certain subjects can provide insight and a more highly developed curriculum. The task of collaborating assumes that the teachers wish to do so, and that the administration supports such attempts. The principals of the schools are often the instigators of collaborative efforts, and with their support and encouragement their efforts can often pay off in improved learning by the students.

One study (Gajda, & Koliba, 2008) showed that in order to facilitate substantive school change principals had the responsibility to cultivate an environment that promoted collaboration. Gajda and Koliba wrote "it is becoming increasingly important for school leaders to employ models of supervision that focus on the performance and improvement of collective teacher behavior" (Gajda, & Koliba, 2008, p. 133).

One of the reasons for collaborative teaching efforts is that more experienced teachers can pass their experience on to those new teachers who have not had the opportunities to fully appreciate the classroom setting. New teachers are often not as likely to interact with the more experienced teachers unless they are put into a collaborative setting. If the new teachers (and the older teachers) are asked to participate in that type of collaboration by the principal of the school, they are much more likely to do so than if it is left up to the individual teachers initiative.

Collaborative efforts are often times (of a necessity) a more people-oriented approach to teaching (and learning) and a recent study determined that "the more people-centered approach…impacts multiple ecologies, including the classroom, school and region" (Davis, Preston, & Sahin, 2009, p. 136). Collaboration can have a positive effect on the classroom and individual students, but it does not ensure that the teachers are quality teachers who will improve the chances of success for all students.

The question remains as to how to ensure that our teachers are quality individuals who understand the process of teaching as well as the methods that are currently available. David Berliner wrote an article for the Journal of Teacher Education in the summer of 2005 that was titled "The Near Impossibility of Testing for Teacher Quality." In that article, Berliner makes a case that testing for quality teachers makes no sense at all, and in fact might make more sense not to test the teachers at all.

Berliner argues "the simplistic curriculum-delivery models of teaching underlying many of these tests (for licensure and accountability purposes) ultimately serve to demean and cheapen the teaching profession" (Granger, 2008, p. 206). Berliner seems to believe that testing teachers tells only part of the story. If testing teachers is not the answer to discovering quality, that leaves the question of what measures should be used?

One recent member of Teach for America (TFA) made the following recommendations;

1. extend the TFA commitment to three years

2. convert the first year of teaching to a residency training year, offer classroom training with expert veteran teachers while corps members also complete coursework toward certification

3. offer incentives for teaching longer than three years (Hopkins, 2009, p. 4).

The same individual stated that making these changes "could help TFA fulfill its mission of creating leaders who will make lasting changes in the field of educations, while also enhancing program quality during the time they serve in our nation's most under-resourced schools" (Hopkins, p. 5). These items make sense for TFA, and could make sense for other teacher organizations as well.

Closing the achievement gap that exists will take more than time. It will also take an equitable allocation of funds, and a supply of high-quality teachers that are good role models.

Complementing those two factors should also be students who are motivated to learn, a change in the educational environment, higher expectations from teachers and students, and less negative stereotyping by teachers. If these factors are addressed effectively, a change can be initiated. That change can be a positive factor in equal opportunity education, and might mean a huge change in how education is addressed for all individuals.

Robert Evans (2005), Director of The Human Relations Service, Inc., Wellesley, Massachusetts, contends that the achievement gap extends beyond social and economic factors schools can control. In the journal publication, "A special section on the achievement gap - reframing the achievement gap," Evans (2005) asserts that "Skin color, ethnic status, poverty - none of these, by themselves, determine a student's performance. There are black and Hispanic students everywhere, including those whose families are poor, who succeed impressively. Nor, for their part, do schools create the disparity" (Evans, ¶ 3). The predominantly urban schools which prove to be less congenial to learning than others possess the largest minority enrollments. These schools reportedly have a greater number of inexperienced teachers who may not be properly trained, and uncertified. They may have to teach from outdated textbooks with fewer technical tools, in overcrowded classrooms in buildings in bad repair; marked by violence. The point is undisputable: Students affected by the academic gap high-quality teachers. Too often, blacks do not have access to these teachers or learning environments that promote learning (Evans, ¶ 4).

Environment

Perhaps changes can be made in the educational approaches being used in America that would facilitate understanding and comprehension on a much broader scale than was previously imagined. Access to a quality education for African-Americans might not be the only deciding factor in why an achievement gap exists, as the culture in which the students are raised may have an effect as well. One recent study showed that "cultural incongruence is one among many explanations for this previously described inaccessibility" (Parsons, Foster, Gomillion, & Simpson, 2008, p. 71). The study was conducted to determine what factors contributed to educational inaccessibility.

A number of the cultural changes necessary are already taking place, and certainly changing the educational environment could be one of the healthiest reforms in education.

An example of those changes is the culture experienced abroad as compared to the educational culture in America. In America, it is wrong to plagiarize another person's work, using another individual's words to display knowledge without giving credit to that person is viewed in a very dim manner. However, in some Asian educational surroundings "plagiarism can be seen as a virtue: producing what you know to be correct" (Sowden, 2005, p. 227). Sowden states that students who "speculate with ideas which may be incorrect will tend to be viewed as pointless or even dangerous" (p. 227).

Perhaps changing the environment in which African-Americans culture is taken more into consideration might produce results of a more substantial manner. Some studies have found that providing role models from the student's own culture helps in changing the environment to one that is more comfortable to the student. One recent study showed that "increasing the percentage of math teachers who are black has a nontrivial, positive impact on the likelihood that a black geometry student will enroll in a subsequent rigorous math course" (Klopfenstein, 2005, p. 416). If what the article states as truth is true, then finding those successful black individuals who can take that success to the classroom might be one method for propagating further success from those students who are looking for a role model.

In the study, "The effect of motivation, family environment and student characteristics on academic achievement," Ibtesam Halawah, Ph.D., (2006), Ajman University of Science & Technology, United Arab Emirates, examines how motivation, family environment, and student characteristics impact academic achievement. This study, conducted with 388 high school students, 193 males and 195 females, in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), did not find any gender differences on the measured variables. "Remarkably high correlation value was observed between motivation and students characteristic. The highest correlation value was observed between family environment and students' characteristics" (Halawah, 2006, ¶ 1). From this research, Halawah (2006) concludes that intelligence alone does not determine academic achievement.

In learning, Halawah (2006) purports, when high school students are highly motivated and engaged, this consistently links to lower dropout rates and increases in levels of student success. A significant goal for educators includes development of academic intrinsic, inherent motivation in high school students as this contributes to future motivation and student's effective school functioning. Motivation in younger children, albeit, constitutes a week predictor of achievement.

The family's socioeconomic status serves as an indicator of how being disadvantaged affects the student's educational attainment. "…A less physically crowded environment, along with motivation and parental support, were associated with higher educational levels of children. Religiosity as an aspect of the family environment is another independent variable possibly influencing academic achievement" (Halawah, 2006, ¶ 2). As the family serves as the primary social system for children, Halawah (2006) notes, high parental control also links to high achievement.

Maryah Stella Fram, PhD, assistant professor, College of Social Work, University of South Carolina, Julie E. Miller-Cribbs, PhD, associate professor School of Social Work, University of Oklahoma, and Lee Van Horn, PhD (2007), assistant professor of quantitative psychology, University of South Carolina, find that factors such as single parents mothers who became pregnant in their teen years, mothers with lower education levels of education, as well as living in households with lower socioeconomic status affect the student's achievement potential. In the study, "Poverty, race, and the contexts of achievement: Examining educational experiences of children in the U.S. south," Fram, Miller-Cribbs and Van Horn contend that achievement gaps prove particularly critical in the American South, an area prevalent with a large Black population, high poverty levels, traditionally poor performance in most educational quality domains, and a frail system of support and services to nurture the family well-being of those individuals faltering in school. Even though a general agreement exists regarding the significance of the achievement gap, however, no consensus has yet been determined regarding its causes or solutions.

Fram, Miller-Cribbs and Van Horn (2007) report that some research suggests that when students attend predominantly ethnic minority or predominantly poor schools, the contextual effects of social segregation positions them at an academic disadvantage. Other studies, however, argue that the momentous problems evolving from persistent and severe disparities adversely affect the quality and resources of schools which serve disadvantaged groups of students. Yet another sect of researchers claim that the direction of scholarship mirrors a notion that culture and family structure variances may contribute to the lower school success of poor and ethnic minority, including Black, youths.