Analyzing Vocabulary Acquisition in Esol Students

Vocabulary Acquisition in ESOL Students English as foreign/second language (EFL/ESL) classrooms widely neglected the area of vocabulary, until lately. Grammar lessons are founded on a collection of rules having coherent structure, expected to be remembered or followed by students. However, the same doesn't hold true when it comes to vocabulary (Jeff, 2010). In the past few years, this area of English learning has gained importance as a necessary component to be learned by ESL students.

It is believed by many to be just as crucial as reading, speaking, writing, and listening (Jeff, 2010). Work of different researchers state that knowledge of vocabulary aids language use, which in turn helps expand vocabulary knowledge, while knowledge about the world leads to increased language use and vocabulary knowledge (p. 6). The above contextualized outlook towards vocabulary learning will aid students in expanding their vocabulary by means of authentic communication (Jeff, 2010). Of all languages, English is believed to possess the most extensive vocabulary (Min, 2013).

Literate native English speakers typically know around 70,000 words or 20,000-word families. Meanwhile, literate non-native English speakers possess not even a quarter of native English speakers' vocabulary. They have to work on their knowledge of vocabulary for gaining success in their English-medium academic endeavors. A strong vocabulary foundation is crucial at all stages of ESL learners' English language development, irrespective of the extent of individual learners' pronunciation and grammar skills. Effective communication is not possible, if one doesn't possess sufficient knowledge of vocabulary.

Vocabulary skills development eventually leads to richer speaking, listening, writing and reading skills (Min, 2013). Studies emphasize the fact that systematic learning of new words is essential for word retention as well as facilitation of later production by the learner (Min, 2013; Nation, 2009). Literature Review Strategies for Vocabulary Learning have been explored from two key perspectives, namely, cognitive psychological and L2 (language two) Acquisition (Adel, 2015). Researchers define learning strategy as particular actions that learners take for making their learning easier, more enjoyable, more effective, faster, more transferable, and more self-directed (Adel, 2015).

Studies on vocabulary acquisition/learning haven't garnered much attention before the early eighties. A majority of applied linguists ignored the learning of vocabulary; this fact has been criticized, and its negligence explained, by researchers in their Second Language Acquisition (SLA) study (Adel, 2015). No clear vocabulary acquisition theories existed until the latter part of the 70's (Adel, 2015). Other vocabulary learning researchers agree that further investigation is required in this field, which has garnered the attention of numerous SLA research scholars for the past thirty years (Adel, 2015).

English Language Learners (ELLs) grasp vocabulary differently when compared to native speakers of the language (Adel, 2015). A recent research revealed that the average native English speaker learns 1,000 words a year prior to reaching college, after which he/she begins learning about 2,000 words annually (Peregoy & Boyle, 2013). Meanwhile, vocabulary studying time has to be doubled for ELLs, particularly in the academic context (Adel, 2015).

Additionally, a majority of recent studies on vocabulary teaching concentrate on the need to bombard ELLs with new words via written and oral resources from various curricular contexts (Peregoy & Boyle, 2013). Hence, for capturing the functional, universal meaning of novel vocabulary, one must expose language learners explicitly to vocabulary knowledge. For example, it is asserted that ELLs require a minimum of 5-16 times exposure for mastering novel terms.

Far from curricular instruction in vocabulary learning, ELLs devote several hours per week to communicating in, or studying, the language, thus getting exposed to colossal amounts of vocabulary daily (Adel, 2015). Similar to acquisition of first language, SLA is gradually maintained through ELLs' learning environment. But, incidentally, ELLs typically develop their vocabulary base via conversation (i.e., social relations with fluent English speakers both within and outside of school) (Peregoy & Boyle, 2013).

While doing so, ELLs have to choose a suitable strategy for acquiring a better insight into new texts learnt or read by them. Therefore, it becomes imperative to understand the strategies and methods followed by ELLs when studying vocabulary. Another important point is: discovering which strategies lead to greater success. The aforementioned questions are crucial in any study aimed at identifying strategies for vocabulary learning. Numerous strategies have been introduced in English (or any language) learning research.

For example, Boyle and Peregoy (2013) introduced the following strategies for ELLs and their instructors, to be utilized up to self-assessment stage: TPR (Total Physical Response), Webtools for vocabulary learning, Word Cards, Read-Alouds, Beginners' list group-label, and Word Wall Dictionary. But, such strategies might or might not be used with ELLs during the initial stages. Furthermore, it has been stated by Schmitt that ELLs typically employ diverse strategies of vocabulary learning (Schmitt, 2010).

As each learner is characterized by his/her own unique vocabulary learning style, some strategies seem to be practical solutions for learning novel words. Certainly, researchers, for instance, stressed the fact that a majority of learners' favor mental or cognitive strategies over learning new terms, understanding their basic meaning, and categorizing/grouping them. Vocabulary Acquisition Process Two divergent perspectives exist with regard to second language vocabulary acquisition: explicit and implicit learning.

The latter theory on vocabulary learning maintains that subconscious acquisition of vocabulary during reading proves more effective when compared to learning words by way of intentional vocabulary exercises, as the conscious focus of the learner will be on the content being read, rather than on what must be learned (Min, 2013). Nevertheless, several research works have convincingly proven that reading extensively doesn't suffice when it comes to improving one's knowledge of vocabulary (Min, 2013; Nation 2009).

While sole reliance on reading to develop vocabulary might cultivate in learners the ability of recognizing many words, it probably won't advance one's ability of productively using words (Min, 2013; Nation, 2008). Learning of vocabulary via extensive reading proves most effective in case of advanced proficiency second-language learners, as readers need to know how and when they must make use of contextual clues, while also being aware of affixes and word families for word analysis. Second-language vocabulary acquisition style varies with learner.

Moreover, inference from context while reading will not guarantee retention in the long run (Min, 2013). A majority of educators and researchers are now agreeing that increasingly long-term, secure learning results from increasingly profound processing in vocabulary learning (Min, 2013; Nation, 2008). Efficient strategies for learning must be employed for vocabulary expansion and effective English language learning (Min, 2013). Theoretical Concepts Vocabulary development is highly vital for succeeding in graduate or undergraduate courses. Vocabulary learning is a continuous process requiring practice and devotion of time.

Nakata (2006) asserts that acquisition of vocabulary entails constant repetition, for effective grasp (p. 19). It isn't like grammar, which can be easily memorized. It requires discipline on the learner's part, and devotion of time every day, for discovering, understanding and retaining unfamiliar words. This practice will ensure that a higher frequency of words is retained for a longer term in the learner's memory. According to different researchers, ELLs must encounter a particular word several times in appropriate, authentic reading, writing, and speaking contexts (Jeff, 2010).

Development of lessons that enable the learner to come across novel words numerous times, thereby ensuring these words are retained in his/her memory in the long run, may be a time-consuming task. Composing word-lists out of a lesson may decrease work load, while ensuring the learner stumbles upon the words many times through listening, speaking, and reading. Learning of novel vocabulary from context also aids learners in understanding the proper usage of terms, and prevents them from making erroneous sentences out of dictionary definitions.

Learning unfamiliar words from word lists differs significantly from understanding them in a story's or sentence's context. Researchers write that learning novel terms from context is just one of the methods learners may employ, and that they must use meta-cognitive thinking and learn novel terms within whichever context they appear in (Jeff, 2010). For aiding learners in familiarizing themselves with key terms from a lesson's context, educators must give emphasis to low context terms, thus necessitating another distinction: low frequency and high frequency terms.

High frequency terms are described by researchers as those that crop up rather frequently in written or spoken language (e.g., a, the, woman, man, etc.) Such words crop up so often in everyday interactions that, if a learner successfully understands them, he/she can speak in and write comprehensible English. Meanwhile, Nation describes low frequency terms as those that are seen more frequently in academic studies, courses and texts, but less frequently in everyday speech (e.g., index, modify, formulate, etc.) (Jeff, 2010).

The aforementioned distinction aids teachers in their attempt to understand, which words are familiar to students and which aren't. However, the teaching/learning of low frequency terms is still challenging. Developing vocabulary lists out of curricular textbooks, followed by presenting them through context during lessons ought to aid students in retaining and applying new vocabulary. Moreover, ELLs learn new words better, if they find them useful and can apply them more frequently while studying. Just like other elements of language acquisition, vocabulary may be facilitated by cooperative learning.

It is revealed in different researches that acquisition of vocabulary is a rather learner-focused activity; how successful learners' strategies might be, depends on their motivation and attitude towards acquiring new vocabulary (Jeff, 2010. The above statement is true, as the primary motivational factor for learning has to emerge from the learner. However, in the process of vocabulary acquisition, where the learning atmosphere is cooperative, students can learn from their closest peers.

Researchers revealed that, in such settings, learners appeared to be more relaxed, as well as acquired more knowledge from their peers as they realized the following facts: 1) It is okay to make mistakes while learning; 2) The process of learning English may be made enjoyable; and 3) It is good to have goals (Jeff, 2010). Thus, despite vocabulary acquisition being a learner-focused activity of studying and disciplining oneself to establish goals, it may be enjoyed more, and may produce superior outcomes, by students' collaboration with their peers.

Understanding the fact that the process of vocabulary acquisition is continuous, that it may proceed favorably through cooperation among students, and that it is more effective when done through context, guided the practices explained in the following sections. Vocabulary Learning in American Middle School Students For successful graduation of ELLs from school, they need to master various text genres, spanning a broad range of academic disciplines (Margarita, n.d.).

Standard English language curricula incorporate a great deal of areas, from prose and poetry to numerous informational texts, presented in every other discipline: historical documents, reference texts, and scientific reports. ELLs need to master content, vocabulary, pronunciation, writing, form, and syntax, for succeeding at school/college/university and beyond. The challenge for schools is made clearer when one takes into account how diverse the group of ESL students is. ELLs span the complete world of political and social spectrum, hailing from all continents.

Some learners continue to fail tests and remain in ELL classrooms, despite long being a part of the U.S. school system. Meanwhile, others are proficient in their mother tongue and, in several respects, possess superior content knowledge relative to their counterparts who are native English speakers, but are new to the nation. Also coming under this category are students whose schooling in their native place has been interrupted due to local/regional strife (i.e., those who have sought political asylum in America).

All these learners enter the American schooling system at different ages, but are required to master not only curriculum content, but the English language as well. Furthermore, the very skills mastered by native speakers when learning English have to be learned by ELLs: fluency, vocabulary, phonemic awareness, and syntax. And though it is demanded that they quickly master the aforementioned skills, they, in fact, require more time compared to native English speakers, as it is a foreign language for them.

However, overriding every other need is the need to acquire mastery over vocabulary. Content cannot be mastered by ELLs, unless they first understand English vocabulary (Margarita, n.d.). Students at the high-school, middle-school and upper elementary levels are required to write and read out a wide range of texts. At middle-school stage, they are required to understand different literary genre (essays, novels, poetry), in addition to technical and scientific texts, mathematical texts, historical documents, reference texts and internet sources.

These reading, writing and comprehension activities are complex enough for learners in mainstream classrooms, but for ELLs, they are thrice as complex, on account of the fact that they are only just learning novel vocabulary, content and reading skills (Margarita, n.d.). For success at the school and higher education level, and for finding good employment, ELLs have to gain proficiency in language, content knowledge, and literacy.

Tremendous challenges are faced by ELLs, their educators, and the educational institutions they are enrolled in, which have to be taken care of using comprehensive instruction and syllabi (Margarita, n.d.). Preparing ELLs for Academic Success Public schools across America are increasingly welcoming students whose native tongue isn't English. Almost all districts encounter the challenging task of assisting such students with gaining English language proficiency, while concurrently delivering superior quality education to them (Research Review, 2007). Schools with ELLs are faced with a daunting task indeed.

ELLs aren't monolithic, and though most are Native-Spanish speakers, the native tongue for the rest is some 400 different languages (NCELA 2007). A majority of ELLs are U.S.-born, but nearly 50% of them studying in the sixth to twelfth grade aren't (Research Review, 2007)). Just like other students, they are characterized by unique individual experiences, which they bring to their schools, and which may impact the pace at which they acquire English proficiency (Research Review, 2007).

For complicating matters further, the quest for efficient teaching practices has, in several places, been thwarted by other schemes, concerned not with honest inquiry, but with ideology (Research Review, 2007). Luckily, a stream of researches conducted within the past decade, (though without invariably definitive findings), has helped explain exactly what is needed to aid ELLs in succeeding at school. These offer some significant lessons that will aid in shaping practices and policies for advancing ELLs' academic progress as well as English proficiency (Research Review, 2007).

What School Practices Support ELL Achievement? Schools having high ELL proficiency levels are likely to possess characteristics normally seen in schools that are generally high-achievers; these include (Research Review, 2007): 1. Well-trained educators capable of addressing ELL students' unique needs. Schools support staff members through job-embedded, sustained professional growth (Francis et al. 2006a; Parrish et al. 2006; Short and Fitzsimmons 2007). 1. School-wide emphasis on ELL achievement and development of the English language. This covers data-driven teaching (Parrish et al. 2006). 1. Constant, consistent language support for every grade.

ELLs consistently exposed to a clear program will perform better than those subject to diverse approaches (August and Shanahan 2006; Genesee et al. 2006). 1. Alignment of meaningful curriculum with state assessments and standards. Effective curriculum is supported by best practices and sound theory, while including higher-order thinking (Genesee et al. 2006). What can School Districts do to help ELLs become English Proficient and Successful at School? Improving ELLs' academic success is a complex task.

Some challenges have to be dealt with at the state or federal level (e.g., aligning state content standards and assessments, and including sufficient academic English within both). However, substantial decision-making pertaining to ELL education is done locally. In this process, district and school leaders have to take into consideration ELLs' number, mobility and diversity, while remaining responsive to any alterations in student population. Empirical studies cannot be found for guiding every aspect of ELL learning, but literature indicates that school districts can (Research Review, 2007): 1.

Establish Academic English Proficiency as an English Language Learning Goal. Academic English represents the sort of language utilized in classrooms and textbooks. It forms the key to learning of academic content. Expanding learners' opportunity of learning academic English language across grade levels, domains (speaking, reading, listening, and writing), and content areas can work to the advantage of native speakers as well as ELLs (Research Review, 2007). 1. Offer Sufficient Professional Development, for helping Teachers Meet ELL Students' Educational Needs.

Educators/teachers must know how they can increase academic English learning opportunities for their ELL students. Moreover, they must utilize an inclusive framework to deliver academic instruction, as well as for differentiating instruction and promoting every child's success (including ELLs). Secondary and middle school teachers must, particularly, be given professional support and development opportunities for assisting ELLs in improving academic English proficiency and reading comprehension, by means of clear instruction in vocabulary, background knowledge, and literacy strategies (Research Review, 2007). 1. Wherever Possible, include Instruction in First-language, in ELL Classrooms.

Research indicates that first-language support has long-range advantages for ELLs. Reading instruction that focuses on 5 key reading components, as specified by the National Reading Panel (reading fluency, reading comprehension phonics, vocabulary, and phonemic awareness) is another helpful element (when enhanced and tailored to ELL students' learning requirements). However, substituting reading intervention for language development can slow down the academic achievement of ELLs (Research Review, 2007). 1. Make Achievement of ELL Students a School-wide Priority.

Several traits of successful schools can support this cause as well, including a commitment by all members of the school to achievement of ELL students, sufficient teacher capacity, steady language support of suitable duration for all grades, and compatibility of school resources with the ELL community (National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth) (Research Review, 2007). 1. Ground ELL Group Decisions and Assessment Policies in Academic English Proficiency Measures of Learners. However, it must be remembered that this is not an easy task.

Many researchers claim that reliable and valid academic English proficiency measures haven't been developed as yet (Research Review, 2007). 1. Continue Monitoring ELL Students' Progress after their Reclassification as "Proficient in English." Current methods for ELL classification and placement can lead to some ELLs being pulled prematurely out of language support.