Axelrod, M.I., & Zank, A.J. (2012). Increasing classroom compliance: Using a high-Probability command sequence with noncompliant students. Journal of Behavioral Education, 21(2), 119-133. Noncompliance or the failure to complete an assignment/instruction is a problematic behavior within the school system and can result in several counterproductive outcomes for students such as poor learning, friction in the classroom, disruptive behaviors, etc. Previous research has indicated that giving a high probability command sequence prior to a low probability request has been shown to increase compliance in difficult students. High probability command sequences (HPC) are simple commands which an individual is very likely to comply with. The researchers were interested in determining if using HPCs before giving low probability requests would also increase compliance in students in special education classes or with behavioral disorders. Two special education students were tested in this study. After developing a list of HPCs and low probability commands (LPC) for each student and identifying baseline behaviors for LPCs the students were given three HPCs followed by an LPC command in a training session and then one HPC followed by one LPC during a maintenance/fading session. There were a total of 4 to 6 trials for each student. Both students demonstrated a significant increase in compliance with the low probability commands compared to baseline as a result of the training. The researchers report that the findings are encouraging; however due to the small sample size generalization is difficult. The researchers also discuss theoretical models such as momentum and conditioning that may explain how this process works and make suggestions for practical applications.

Bryan, J., Day-Vines, N.L., Griffin, D., & Moore-Thomas, C. (2012). The disproportionality dilemma: Patterns of teacher referrals to school counselors for disruptive behavior. Journal of Counseling & Development, 90(2), 177-190.

The authors report that the phenomenon where students relative to their proportion in the population experience overrepresentation or underrepresentation along a particular dimension, known as disproportionality, is plaguing many schools and institutions in the nation. Drawing on data from the 2002 educational longitudinal study the researchers investigated 4607 10th-graders in English classes and 4981 10th-graders and math classes to determine if: (1) what variables (student, school, and teacher) predict referrals to school counselors for disruptive behaviors; (2) if previous at risk behaviors could predict teacher referrals for disciplinary actions; and, if teachers post secondary expectations of students predict these referrals. Using logistic regression analysis the researchers found that males were far more likely to referred for disciplinary actions than females in both classes, black students were 1.17 more likely to be referred than white students in English classes, and that black females and multiracial females had higher odds of being referred for disruptive behaviors in English classes. In addition, the students with histories of disruptive behavior were much more likely to be referred for disciplinary action than those who were not, and high teacher expectations was associated with significantly lower odds of them referring students for disruptive behaviors. The results of the study indicated that English and math teachers differed somewhat and their referrals for disciplinary actions with English teachers being more likely to refer students from minority backgrounds. However, the study does not address why students in these classes are being "disruptive," what is it about English classes that lead to differential compliance/referral rates (although reasons were hypothesized), nor does it look at the contribution of school counselors in the referral process. The researchers suggest that future studies should look at how teacher expectations based on the subject matter and student expectations as well as counselor inventions contribute to these referrals.

Clees, T.J., & Greene, E.B. (2014). Discriminative Stimulus Social Skills Training: The Effects

of Video-based Exemplars of Teacher Requests on the Compliance of Students with Behavioral Disorders. Journal of Special Education Technology, 29(2), 1-17.

Students with behavioral disorders and emotional disorders may exhibit noncompliance to request/commands by teachers that consist of externalizing behaviors such as talking out of turn, going off tasks, or just not complying with the instruction/request. Typically social skills training methods (SST) for these students use models that imitate the request (stimulus) and proper response (response) in either a live or video format. The researchers were interested in the effectiveness of video -- based stimulus presentations without the response presentation on the compliance of students with behavioral disorders. The researchers evaluated the effectiveness of two social skills training methods: discriminative stimuli -- SST (DS -- SST) which uses only stimulus exemplars and peer assisted -- SST (PA -- SST) which used peer modeling, role-playing, and feedback which are more traditional-based...

Four students with behavioral disorders were randomly assigned to participate in either DS -- SST or PA -- SST conditions. The students in the DS -- SST demonstrated that a trend towards higher compliance, whereas the PA -- SST training did not produce trends towards compliance, but did result in the student being able to stay on task longer and decreased talking out of turn (talk out behavior). The researchers explain their findings such that DS -- SST assumes that students who exhibit noncompliance typically have numerous compliant responses in their behavioral repertory and are motivated to comply if the potential for reinforcement is there and the student was receptive with the idea.
Rispoli, M., Ganz, J., Neely, L., & Goodwyn, F. (2013). The effect of noncontingent positive vs. negative reinforcement on multiply controlled behavior during discrete trial training. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 25(1), 135-148.

The researchers report that using a functional analysis for behavioral change that consists of both positive and negative reinforcement can be counterproductive. They cite research that indicates that nearly 17% of participants in studies engage in multiply controlled designs. Such designs can be difficult to implement, can be confusing to participants, and it is not clear what interventions are working in what interventions are not in these designs. The authors also note that noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) and noncontingent escape (NCE) are viable alternatives to typical operational conditioning functional analyses that use contingent reinforcement or contingent escape (negative reinforcement). Noncontingent reinforcement or escape interventions typically use fixed time intervals to provide reinforcement as opposed to a stimulus response type of arrangement. In this study researchers compared NCE and noncontingent access to edible tangibles (NCT), a form of NCR, on to children with autism spectrum disorder in an ABAB reversal design. NCT reduced the level of challenging behaviors more effectively than did NCE. Moreover, the effect of NCT on challenging behaviors was quick and significant. Neither NCT nor NCE appeared to be effective in increasing compliance in the subjects in this study as the NCT and NCE conditions did not differentiate relative to compliance. However, it was noted that compliance increased slightly and variably in both NCT and NCE conditions. The researchers believe that the use of noncontingent reinforcers (positive or negative) on a fixed time schedule may allow for researchers and clinicians to better manage situations in which multiple levels of control or multiple behaviors are present.

Thompson, A.M., & Webber, K.C. (2010). Realigning student and teacher perceptions of school rules: A behavior management strategy for students with challenging behaviors. Children & Schools, 32(2), 71-79.

The authors report that while there are many strategies available for managing the behavior of students the most familiar and utilized strategies are punitive techniques which are ineffective in managing disruptive behavior in school. The researchers suggest that using more positive reinforcement techniques via cognitive behavioral methods can result in better behavioral management. In the current study 10 students with emotional and behavioral disabilities were administered a protocol for improving their behavior according to the student and teacher agreement realignment strategy (STARS), which is a cognitive behaviorally -- based program that does not rely on punitive measures for disciplining students. The study utilized a single -- subject AB design that consisted of an 18-week baseline and 18-week intervention program. Multiple indicators and tests of behavior were used as dependent measures. Nearly all students demonstrated a significant improvement in the percentage appropriate behavior during the intervention phase and a reduction in the number of office referrals for noncompliant behavior. In addition, the data suggested that students displayed more stable behavior patterns turning the intervention phase than they did during the baseline recording phase, again indicating that the intervention produced meaningful results. The strength of the study is that multiple behavioral measures were used and that the data collection methods were practical and can be adopted in most schools. Despite limitations such as a convenience sample and the use of only special education students the researchers suggest that the STARS intervention used in this study offers evidence that approaches to managing behavior using positive reinforcement have better potential in the long run than traditional punitive management strategies for managing students with behavioral issues.