Body Image While Precise Definitions

¶ … Body Image

While precise definitions of beauty remain elusive and the subjective nature of the enterprise demands qualifications, it is clear that physical appearance has always fulfilled an important social function for humans, particularly women. From a strictly pragmatic perspective, more attractive women -- based on whatever definition was appropriate for the era -- stood a better chance of securing a mate and reproducing than their less attractive counterparts. For ancient mankind, physically attractive women may have been much more male-like and larger in their appearance than modern females because these women would have represented better hunters and even warriors than a demure and physically petite female. Indeed, it is not too far-fetched to imagine the most desirable women in a particular tribe of early humans as being a hairy, foul-smelling specimen who could nevertheless hunt, cook and bear children better than her peers. As time progressed, though, and domestic task responsibilities became more clearly differentiated between men and women, other physical attributes became more pronounced in terms of different perceptions of physical appearance. Smaller and more delicate women with physically attractive features might have become the most desirable, while the physical appearance of men would be viewed according to their ability to satisfy their more-physically demanding responsibilities. Certainly, these are broad generalizations but for better or worse, these same processes in one form or another have served as the basis for perceptions and interpretations of physical appearance for millennia, usually to the detriment of the female of the species in terms of body image, especially from a modern point-of-view.

Today, it is reasonable to suggest that men enjoy much great latitude for a wide range of social factors, particularly body image. According to Lee and Owens (2002), when compared to men, women have it much more difficult in terms of body image issues: "Women are implicitly positioned as 'other,' as objects to be looked at rather than as individuals whose subjectivity is of equal value to that of men" (p. 55). A growing body of evidence suggests that women in particular have been affected by these Barbie doll-like physical qualities as exemplified in a barrage of media messages in ways that have contributed to a higher incidence of eating disorders and body image disturbances (Twamley & Davis, 1999; Lee & Owens, 2002). Indeed, Chambers and Alexander (2007) report that research indicates that between 11 and 20% of young women today suffer from an eating disorder. According to Chambers and Alexander, "Previous research has established a link between eating disorders and the media images of ultra thin models" (2007, p. 491). These authors, though, also emphasize that it remains unclear why so many other women remain unaffected by the same media messages and suggest that additional research into this issue is needed before informed analyses can be achieved (Chambers & Alexander, 2007).

These trends have caused many researchers in recent years to posit that while women will be highly involved with their physical appearance, men will view their physical appearance in a more positive light and will likely experience much less anxiety and involvement in physical appearance maintenance than women (Lee & Owens, 2002). The studies to date indicate that men are typically more satisfied with their body weight compared to women (Leon et al.., 1985), physicality (Fallon & Rozin, 1985) as well as their general appearance (Pliner et al., 1990). Consequently, there remains a dearth of timely research concerning these issues as they apply to men, with the majority of studies being focused on women with the result being that these issues have assumed a female-specific quality (Rodin et al.., 1985; Thompson et al., 1999). This paucity of timely research may also conceal some very real problems men in general and American and other Western men in particular may be suffering from based on changes in social patterns during the past half century. The fact that men are being exposed to the same media messages being communicated to women as they relate to a desirable physical appearance suggest that body image is important to both men and women, but the emphasis on women's appearance sends a message concerning its importance to both sexes. According to Rothblum (1994), the majority of women-oriented magazines feature pictures of women which depict -- either purposely or not -- a desirable image to which women should aspire. Conversely, magazines that are targeted at a male audience typically contain advertisements and other images of idealized women rather than men (Lee & Owens, 2002). The basic message being communicated by the mainstream media concerning the relative importance of the female physical appearance compared to that of the male is described by Green (1998) as being, "In a phallocentric civilization in which women are always the passive objects of the active male gaze and of male desire, the spectator is necessarily interpolated as a man, or men; the structure of a culture in which men look and women are looked at is reified and preserved by cinematic structure that 'men look, and women are looked at'" (p. 155).

Taken together, these trends would suggest that women are far more interested in and concerned with their body image compared to their male counterparts; however, the few studies that have been conducted concerning body image and men indicate that men experience concerns over their weight and the shape of their bodies as well, but such concern has been denigrated by the scientific community in favor of further research concerning body image issues and women (Lee & Owens, 2002). In this regard, Lee and Owens emphasize that today, masculinity is increasingly becoming associated with muscularity in ways that are making men vulnerable to the same types of media messages that have long been blamed for women's eating disorders and social anxieties about their physical appearance. In fact, some researchers maintain that although the reactions by men to such media messages may manifest themselves differently from women, men likely suffer from the same general levels of body dissatisfaction as women (Davis & Cowles, 1991; Drewnonski & Yee, 1987), with some studies placing the dissatisfaction level as high as 95% (Mishind et al., 1986). Although few in number in comparison to those devoted to females, the studies to date concerning the issues that are of most importance to men with regards to their physical appearance include height, baldness and muscularity (Anderson et al., 2000; Phillips & Olivardia, 2000). The results of this early research are increasingly pointing to comparable concerns among men regarding their physical appearance and aspiration to an idealized body as captured in the mainstream media and other social forces that have resulted in permutations on the "metrosexual-but-buff" male theme (Fallon, 1990). Perhaps it is little wonder, then, that the smattering of recent research to date in these areas has found that men suffer from body dissatisfaction and associated adverse healthcare consequences in far greater numbers than previously believed (Andersen et al., 2000; Cash, 1997, Kurth & Krahh, 1995). Therefore, sociologists, anthropologists and clinicians must take body image issues into account when studying the male population given the complex nature of the relationship between males and their physical appearance as influenced by various sociocultural forces. It should be pointed out, though, that not only is there a dearth of relevant and timely research into male perception of body image and the mediating factors that affect it, many of the studies that have been conducted in recent years are flawed in several ways that limit their reliability and generalizability to the larger population. For instance, much of the early findings concerning male body image were based on surveys from magazines, content analyses or other types of research that lacked the credibility of thoughtful research studies using reliable and verifiable methods. In fact, more than 92% of the studies that have been conducted during the past decade or so that included men in their sampling were correlational in design and just two studies used an all-male study population; moreover, while the results of these studies provide a point of departure for further investigations concerning male-specific issues about physical appearance, future studies must taken into account the fact that even the best of the research to date has been flawed by using survey instruments and rating scales that were normed on female responses and were intended to identify body image issues among women (McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2004). Not surprisingly, the majority of the studies to date using these female-targeted metrics were unable to identify specific areas of concern among their male respondents simply because they failed to include appearance issues that were relevant to men (McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2004). In this regard, McCabe and Ricciardelli conclude that this lack of male-specific, reliable clinical research has resulted in some misconceptions and an unclear understanding concerning male body dissatisfaction.

The current limited research in the area of male body image perceptions attempts and continues to explore questions such as: "What concerns do men have about their body image?"; "To what extent do men see themselves as falling short of some particular ideal, and if they do so, how (if at all) does this impact upon their physical and emotional health?"; What factors produce body image concerns in men, and to what extent do male body image concerns parallel, and differ from, female body image concerns?;" and, perhaps most importantly, "How might such concerns be addressed and alleviated?"

Origins of Male Body Image Issues

While the historical origins of male body images are lost in the mists of time, it is reasonable to conjecture that that same social forces have been at work at all times and places in terms of their effect on male body image. As noted above, during the hunter-gatherer phase of mankind, the desirable physical appearance of the male of the species would have been one that contributed to their ability to hunt and kill the large mega-fauna that roamed the land. By contrast, modern males may not be expected to be able to take down a wooly mammoth, but a healthy physique equates to good genes for reproduction and even modern women may therefore be more attracted to men who exhibit superior physical qualities. The studies of body image issues among modern women have typically focused on the impact played by various societal factors, most especially idealized role models as exemplified by ultra-thin fashion models (Rothblum, 1994). As noted above, although there remains a paucity of timely and relevant research in this area as it applies to men specifically, Lee and Owen (2002) suggest that it is not an unreasonable extension of these same processes to the perception of body image among males as well. According to Lee and Owens:

Men are presented with the concept that a real men is large, hard and strong. Physical role models for men are not as prevalent as for women, but they are just as unhealthy and unrealistic: from the Charles Atlas physiques of the 1940s and 1950s, through the massive bodies of bodybuilders like Arnold Schwarzenegger to the hypermuscularity of present-day bodybuilders. With such images, men are presented with two clear messages as regards to physical appearance; a low percentage body fat is seen as good, and a low muscle bulk is seen as bad. (2002, p. 65)

As also noted above, although the prevalence of eating disorders and other psychological problems that are associated with body image issues is sufficiently significant to warrant further study, not all women develop such problems and so too is the case with men. Therefore, identifying what factors contribute to increased risk for such disorders as the result of societal expectations and self-perception among men represents a valuable addition to the body of knowledge concerning the male physique and body image issues. Modern views of what factors constitute a "real man" may be different from ancient times, but there are some interesting commonalities involved that indicate physical appearance remains an essential element in the manner in which people look at themselves in an effort to perceive how others perceive them. The difference between an idealized perspective and what people see in the mirror may be stark, but when the difference is reinforced by repeated messages from the media and peers, the impact may be more pronounced for some men than others. Unfortunately, such messages may assume a problematic status in ways that can result in health-related problems and, equally troubling, superficial assessments of personal qualities that might otherwise be regarded as a wholesome mix of personality and physique. In other words, individual perspectives regarded desirable physical appearance attributes may be sharply different and exaggerated compared to what others consider adequate and appropriate, but the extent to which people internalize the idealized body image messages they receive in modern society is also likely the extent to which the are at higher risk of developing a health-related or psychological problem as a result. By any measure, though, there are a number of factors that are taken into account in the "what-is-a-real-man?" equation. As Lee and Owens (2002) stated, "He is expected to compete with other men, not only in the formal sense of activities like sport and employment, but also informally for status within a social group. He is expected to be self-confident, at ease with himself" (p. 66). From this perspective, at least, Wally Cleaver would be well on his way to becoming a "real man," but there are other factors involved in the equation as well. For example, Lee and Owens add that, "He is expected to be successful romantically, and in some social groups his status will be assessed at least in part by his success in attracting partners, whose social value is enhanced by their own level of attractiveness. Put most simply, a man should aim to be one who is envied by other men" (p. 66). This definition has the advantage of being appropriate for any given era in human history, because cavemen that were envied by their peers possessed certain desirable physical attributes that set them apart from others, just as they do today. In this regard, models of maleness that are culturally focused include factors such as a mesomorphic form (i.e., muscular or athletic type of body) with a low body fat ratio (Petersen, 1998). Clearly, being a "real man" is a tall order during any period of human history, and while modern man is typically not faced with the same threats to survival that Cro-Magnons experienced, it is apparent that concepts of body image have been important forces in the development of mankind, and although concepts of "a real man" differ from culture to culture, there are also some intergenerational differences that can create conflict between older and younger men as they seek to sort out their own thinking on this issue and these are discussed further below.

Developmental Factors in Male Body Image

Concepts about an ideal body shape tend to change as people grow older and mature, and researchers have examined what social factors tend to be more prevalent during a given period in the developmental order of humans. The research to date indicates that younger people are more concerned with what their peers perceive as a desirable body image rather than the larger society in which they live, and perceptions of young males concerning desirable body image are related to the period in life in which comparisons with peers are made. Although very young males are unlikely to develop a well-defined physicality and musculature, as they grow older, boys gain body mass and are able to acquire some of the physical features that their older counterparts possess (Wilcox, 1997). Over time, then, as boys grow into men, they are involved in an ongoing process of evaluating their own physical appearance with their peers and increasingly the idealized versions of a "real man" from the perspective of the larger society in which they live (Lee & Owens, 2002). While cultural factors differ according to time and geographic space, by and large, Lee and Owen suggest that for young children who engage in unfavorable comments concerning the physical appearance of their peers mostly involve overweight or obese children and there is therefore a corresponding perception of thinness as being related to a desirable physical appearance.

During adolescence, though, teenagers become more acutely aware of physical differences between themselves, their peers and the media images being presented. The phenomenon of the six-grade boy who grows a mustache and upper body musculature while his peers are still coping with prepubescent issues is a classic example of how young boys in particular are affected by perceptions of the relationship between physicality among others and themselves. Children who engage in this comparison and believe their physical appearance falls short compared to their peers will likely be more predisposed to also believing that their bodies are not satisfactory because they are insufficient in stature compared to their larger peers (Lee & Owens, 2002). As a result, as young boys grow through the developmental phases from pre-pubescence through puberty and young adulthood, their perceptions about a desirable body image shift from one of thinness to one that requires a large and well-defined physique (Lee & Owens, 2002). The research to date in this area tends to confirm this shift through these developmental phases as well. For instance, a study by Raudenbush and Zellner (1997) determined that although overweight men and women wanted to be thinner almost 42% of men with appropriate weight wanted to be heavier while the vast majority (almost 88%) of women who were of appropriate weight wanted to be thinner. Clearly, just as what behaviors are regarded as socially acceptable tend to change over time, so too do human perceptions of desirable body images among young people as they grow older. While it is apparent that women suffer from body image issues differently than men, it is also apparent that many men experience their fair share of body image issues as well, some of which translate into health-related problems and these issues are discussed further below.

Male Body Image and Men's Health

The results of some recent studies have indicated that like women, male body dissatisfaction can contribute to adverse healthcare outcomes. A number of independent studies (Abell & Richards, 1996; Davis & Katzman, 1997; Henriques & Calhoun, 1999) have demonstrated that both women and men evince moderate correlations between their body image and self-esteem in comparably moderate ways. Indeed, some studies have found a more intense relationship between body image and self-esteem for men than women. For instance, a study by Tiggemann and Wilson-Barrett (1998) of Australian children failed to identify a relationship between self-esteem and body dissatisfaction among girls; however, these researchers identified a significant negative correlation for boys. Likewise, based on their analysis of a sample of Chinese students in Hong Kong, Davis and Katzman (1997) and Abell and Richard (1996) study using a sample of U.S. students identified generally comparable and significant correlations for both men and women between self-esteem and body dissatisfaction measures. The extent to which men are able to satisfy their increasing desire for muscle mass and muscularity has been shown to be the extent to which some adolescent males suffer from lowered self-esteem, heightened depression, body dissatisfaction, and body image disturbances (Labre, 2002; McCreary & Sasse, 2000; Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2004; Smolak & Stein, 2006). Such evidence pointing to the fact that men are indeed affected emotionally by body dissatisfaction is the reason why more research efforts needs to be focused on the study of male body image.

Perception of Ideal Body

The research thus far has made it abundantly apparent that most men are in competition with other men and that there is a fundamental need for men to be regarded as successful and even envied by other men in ways that are essential components of individual definitions of manliness. Some men, though, may be misguided in their own perceptions concerning what constitutes a desirable physical appearance with exaggerated beliefs concerning what women are looking for in men. For instance, Lynch and Zellner (1999) found that college men were more likely to identify a hypermuscular body size as being preferred by women, but these researchers also found that although college women preferred a body size that was larger than average, this preference level was far lower than the perceptions held by college men. Comparable differences between expectations by women and the perceptions held by men tend to diminish as men grow older, supporting the contention that body esteem problems and health-related issues are most pronounced among younger age groups (Lynch & Zellner, 1999). There is also the potential for misperceptions of the ideal body type and a person's own body shape that could contribute to eating disorders and other unhealthy behaviors that persist past an acceptable limit (Lynch & Zellner, 1999).

Like other issues involved in perceptions of body image and its impact on self-esteem and risky behaviors, there remains a need for more research but what has been determined to date largely revolves around assertions that appropriately proportioned women want to be thinner and men with age-appropriate physiques want to be heavier (Lee & Owens, 2002). Like the eating disorders that have been connected with poor body esteem images among women, men are also at risk of developing behaviors designed to add weight that might have adverse healthcare consequences. This suggests that a larger range of weight-change strategies, not all of them healthy, may be engaged in by men, and these issues are discussed further below.

Drive for Muscularity