Paternal Abandonment and Female Adult

Paternal Abandonment and Female Adult Obesity

This work will explore the obesity epidemic, first through a comprehensive analysis of its development, as well as through a literature review pertaining to obesity and its controversial causes. The work will then go on to describe in detail the findings of independent research regarding the issue of paternal abandonment between the ages of 6-19 and its effects on adult obesity in women. The initial findings from this study indicate that there is a causal relationship between adult female obesity and paternal abandonment between the ages of 6 and 19. If this is the case further exploration of this correlation is needed to better understand the development of such results.

Table of Contents

Introduction

Statement of Problem

Hypothesis

Review of Literature

Methodology

Initial Screening

Sample Population

Findings

Siblings

Race

Access to Healthcare

Marital Status

Level of Education

Drinking and Smoking

Level of Education

Household Income

Conclusion

Discussion

Directions for Future Research

Limitations

Definitions of Terms

Resources

Appendix 1 Consent Form

Appendix 2 Questionnaire

Appendix 3 Raw Data

The fact that a man can father a child and then flee from the task of being a father is one of the most frequent and insidious crimes of all times. it's insidious by virtue of contravening justice on a scale far different, for example, than theft: theft is fully remedied when the stolen object or an equivalent one returns into our hands; the absence of a father bears consequences throughout the whole of a life, and even for the following generation. The abandonment of millions of children on the part of their fathers in every corner of the civilized Western world is a different but no less flagrant crime than the injustice suffered by America's slaves or Russia's serfs. it's therefore stunning to be able to defeat this crime by way of a simple laboratory test, without the rivers of blood of the War of Secession or the massacres waged by the White and Red Armies. (Zoja, 2001, p. 285)

Introduction:

Obesity is a significant and current social and physical issue in the world today. (Anderson & Butcher, 2006, p. 19) it is particularly troubling in developed nations and is currently labeled and epidemic in the United States. Many people seek to find answers to the obesity question within the biological and physical spheres of study, blaming the entire situation of obesity on the poor eating habits and low level of physical activity of those who suffer from it. One area of obesity research that has been neglected is its connection to psychological factors. The psychology of obesity is a significant and demonstrative factor in the behaviors that cause obesity as well as in its manifestation, which has recently become increasingly youthful, with children as young as two-five showing early symptoms of obesity as well as a potential future of obesity into adulthood. (Anderson & Butcher, 2006, p. 19)

The psychological effects of self-esteem, either good or bad, are also not completely understood, and the majority of information about self-esteem and its connection to weight is associated with the fear of becoming overweight or the response individuals have in the area of self-esteem in response to a physical situation of overweight and/or obesity. (Skemp-Arlt, 2006, p. 45) One particular issue of self-esteem is the foundational connection an individual has with primary caregivers and specifically with fathers. Many of the scarce studies that assess self-esteem and other issues that are influenced by parents, and that focus on the father as an influencing factor focus on psychosexual development, rather than the development of overall health, such as the absence of obesity. (Scheffler & Naus, 1999, p. 39) it is clear that fathers have a significant impact on many areas of child development and psychology, not the least of which is the development of healthy self-esteem.

A growing number of overweight youth experience health problems that are likely to carry over into adulthood. As this century progresses, that number is set to climb higher, for as the statistics that follow here show, kids are not only getting fatter; they are getting fatter faster. The number of overweight children and adolescents was relatively stable from the 1960s to 1980 but then nearly doubled by 1994. It has since continued to spike upward rather than plateau. (Dalton, 2004, p. 28)

The long-term complications include the early onset of any number of obesity related health issues, such as heart disease, type 2 diabetes and stroke not to mention the sometimes devastating psychological effects that some overweight children endure as a result of the prejudices and discrimination they receive as a result of being overweight.

Additionally primary caregivers set the stage for healthy vs. unhealthy environments, physical activity and eating habits. Children with less direct access to supervision, say in a situation of a single working parent are often left on their own to fend for themselves when making dietary and activity decisions. They are offered a variety of convenience foods, as they are easy to prepare and they are also often barred from leaving the home, while parents are away, limiting physical activity. (Lindsay, Sussner, Kim & Gortmaker, 2006, p. 169) This according to many researchers puts children at risk of future obesity, as it establishes a sedentary lifestyle, during formative years.

Children and adolescents spend more time watching television than they do in almost any other activity. By the time they reach school-age, about half of U.S. children watch television more than two hours a day, and 17% of African-American children watch more than five hours a day. (45) Many studies link TV viewing with overweight. (46) Randomized controlled trials indicate that watching fewer hours of TV can reduce children's body mass index and obesity risk. (47) TV viewing, therefore, may be one important cause of childhood obesity that parents can modify at home. (Lindsay, Sussner, Kim, and Gortmaker, 2006, p. 169)

The situation of feeling unsafe in the outside physical environment and not having close access to parks and recreation centers in many part of the community is a frequently cited issue, relating to obesity among young people in general but especially young women as their feelings of safety in the community are lower than that of their male peers, and parents may be more likely to keep them home for cultural and safety reasons. Children are more likely to spend time doing things like watching television or playing computer games, rather than doing physical activities that would be allowed them if they had adequate supervision to do so.

Studies that use motion sensors show that children who spend less time in moderate activity are at a higher risk than their more active counterparts of becoming obese during childhood and adolescence. (12) Television watching and video games contribute to more sedentary leisure activities as well as to increased snacking and inappropriate food choices prompted by television advertising. Many hours of television viewing are positively correlated with overweight, especially in older children and adolescents. (13) (Caprio, 2006, p. 209)

As the divorce rate rises in the U.S. more and more children are being raised by single parents, and largely by single mothers. In some of the most extreme cases of separation these children experience complete or virtual abandonment by their fathers. The significance of this loss has been explored independent of the psychology and/or physiology of obesity but it is important to note that there may be a demonstrative connection between obesity in women and the abandonment of these women by their fathers, in their youth.

It is widely accepted that parent-child relationships play a central role in children's psychological development... The quality and form of these relationships are thought to predict later interpersonal relationships and have a profound influence on personality development and related psychological functioning, such as in the areas of self-esteem and social confidence. Surprisingly, there has been until relatively recently, only a small body of good empirical evidence to support the importance of these relationships in development. (Ward & Gowers, 2003, p. 103)

This work will first provide an overview of what has been titled the obesity epidemic, offering traditional physiological explanations through the literature of obesity as well as offering novel explanations associated with psychological factors. The work will explore issues of self-esteem as they are associated with obesity as well as abandonment issues that have effected self-esteem, economics and produced prolonged psychological stress during formative years and potentially contributed to the occurrence of obesity in adult women as well as in young girls. It will then move on to detail a comprehensive qualitative study that was conducted to determine if there is any causal connection between adult obesity and real abandonment of young girls by their fathers between the ages of 6-19. (Vincent & McCabe, 1999)

Statement of Problem

The obesity epidemic has hit women particularly hard, as they have a significant physiological disadvantage to men, in that their metabolism is designed to run at a slower pace than men's and their body is also designed to more readily store energy for future use in a crisis, i.e. fat storage. These physiological concerns are significant in that programming that was designed to maintain a nurturing position for young children the physiological environment interprets crisis as anything that creates a stressful physical demeanor. The stress and psychology of abandonment is a constant, once the abandonment by the father has occurred. The body does not distinguish between a fasting period associated with unavailable food, or drought and psychological long-term emotional stress. The human body also does not distinguish between a self imposed diet and a period of famine. It reduces its basal metabolic rate, or the rate of metabolism needed to perform its base functions, and then the recovery period would seem to be longer than expected. This is the diet conundrum, though it has also been proven that prolonged periods of psychological stress and/or depression that could be associated with abandonment by the father will also cause a similar basal metabolic rate reduction.

The human body can adapt to a period of caloric restriction by lowering its basal metabolic rate, so as to conserve energy, glucose, and protein. There is mounting evidence that when the restriction is relaxed or lifted metabolic rate may remain below normal, for at least a few months and perhaps longer (Keys et al. 1950; Kirkley and Burge 1989). Thus, when an individual reaches desired low weight and increases caloric intake, her body may store the added calories as fat, rather than using them. Prolonged semistarvation, whether self-inflicted or involuntary, produces a host of symptoms (e.g., irritability, lability of mood, fatigue, and an obsession with food). (Stephens, Hill & Hanson, 1994, p. 137)

In at least one study there was a clear correlation made between work stress and incidence of obesity, at least a limited indicator that prolonged stress can create a situation ripe for the development of obesity. (Hellerstedt, and Jeffrey, 1997, pp. 575-583) the issue of prolonged stress due to abandonment can be excessive and complex and it is safe to say there are many unknowns with regard to how children perceive and deal with such stress, both psychologically and physiologically.

Abandoned children may also experience economic duress, vicariously through the single parent. The absence of the remaining parent is also a common stressor (as well as the missing parent) as absence is required to maintain the economic needs of a family, with only one physical provider. As one researcher puts it, "single parenting and paternal abandonment are major causes of poverty, especially childhood poverty" (Patterson, 2002, p. 26)They may also feel and adapt to the emotional stress felt by the remaining parent to provide for children as well as to provide adequate physical and emotional care for them. The factors are extremely multifaceted, and don't even touch on the core feelings of rejection, often resulting in misplaced anger that will intensify the stress associated with the situation. Children as young as five have been shown to experience symptoms of clinical depression resulting from their perception of the world as a rejecting and neglectful environment. Once again, such issues are largely unknowns, as childhood stress adaptation and depression are not completely understood. What is known is that there is a clear connection between depression and overweight/obesity and many of the patterns that produce them are retained by children into adulthood, resulting in adult depression and sometimes other health related issues, such as overweight/obesity both which come with a slew of psychical and psychological risks. (Bifulco, 1998) in one study discussing the efficacy of family based therapies for the treatment of childhood obesity, there is a clear indication that such therapy and others may be effective but require the involvement and support of the whole family, including the father. (Epstein et al., 1990) Other issues that are associated with the abandoned girl have to do with the gendered manner in which young girls receive and accept messages, regarding body image and self-worth. It is accepted by some that female children (especially in adolescence) are more receptive to messages regarding body image, either negative or positive from their fathers. (Vincent & McCabe, 1999) if such an influence is absent, then the issue may become an unknown for the young girl, and hence she must then rely exclusively on the frequently unobtainable ideals of the ultra-thin body. (Mccabe & Ricciardelli, 2001, p. 225) Coupling this information with the patterns of girls being more likely to utilize dieting as a weight loss strategy (Mccabe & Ricciardelli, 2001, p. 225) and the fact that periods of semi-starvation are not effective for long-term weight loss the girl may then develop a pattern of unhealthy behavior associated with eating that will carry them into adulthood, and could develop into a situation of obesity.

Hypothesis:

Girls who were abandoned are more likely to become obese adults than girls who maintained a close relationship with their fathers throughout childhood. This work will attempt to answer the research Question; Is there a correlation between obese adult females and childhood abandonment by their fathers?

Review of Literature:

The evolution of the obesity epidemic is difficult to trace, as there is are many mitigating factors. The overall impression is that overweight and obesity are much more common that ever before, and largely in developed nations. The concerns of the medical community, as well as many others, economically and socially driven, are conglomerated in a maze of ideas about cause and effect of obesity. Some say that obesity is a symptom of disease, or unhealthy, rather than a disease itself, while others contend that obesity should be recognized and treated as a chronic disease, just like many others. The foundational problem then arises as to how to develop a clear sense of the problem and its many debated solutions. For a fascinating discussion of the evolution of the medical understanding of obesity and overweight see Pool 2001. (Pool, 2001, p. 37) the resulting variation in theory, as a result of early research, as well as social phenomena can be baffling to even the most ardent research professional, let alone the individual seeking to find solutions to their own problem of overweight or fear of it. Some say that diet and exercise are the only logical answers while others say that diet and exercise have caused some of the problem (specifically diet behaviors and mentalities). When attempting to create a comprehensive review of literature with regard to the nature of the obesity epidemic it becomes increasingly clear that there are many theories very few of which touch on prolonged psychological stress as a factor in obesity, and none specifically address abandonment by the father as a mitigating risk factor in female adult obesity. In fact it is clear that most discussion in the literature simply points out the increased prevalence of obesity and tells the individual, hearing the warning to seek help from their medical professional. ("Most U.S. Adults at," 2005) the concern is then that the individual, given conflicting information relies on a medical profession that is just as confused as they are about the causes of obesity.

As has been stated previously, the idea that obesity and its increase is completely is a physiological phenomena, occurring today because there is a greater availability of high caloric foods and a lower level of physical activity has been propagated extensively by many facets of the community concerned with overweight and obesity. One writer points out that:

Some of the problems with current knowledge about overweight and obesity appear to be more willful and are the products of a determination to see the world in particular ways. For example, the overweight and obesity literature is dominated by the idea that Western society in general is more sedentary than in the past when almost no empirical evidence for this claim exists. In fact, there are many core ideas within the science of body weight and health and the mediating role played by exercise and diet which are simply assumed to be true. (Ross, 2004, p. 4)

The concerns then become even more complex, as assumptions guide intervention, even when such intervention (i.e. putting the body through semi-starvation and/or increased levels of activity that mimic historical physical stress) could actually be more harmful than good for the developing body and mind. The weight loss industry is also a major source of funding for research and development, even of the most scientific nature and is a huge and growing industry.

Indeed, by 1990, the revenues of the commercial weight loss industry totaled more than $30,000,000,000. According to Marketdata Enterprises, $8,000,000,000 was spent on diet centers and programs; group and individual weight loss; diet camps; prepackaged foods; over-the-counter and prescription drugs; weight loss books and magazines; and physicians, nurses, nutritionists, and other professionals specializing in weight loss. Commercial and residential exercise clubs with weight loss programs brought in an additional $8,000,000,000, and revenues from sugar-free, fat-free, and reduced-calorie food products, imitation fats, and sugar substitutes amounted to more than $14,000,000,000. (Smith, 1995, p. 76)

Though, within this group it can be assumed that there are individuals and organizations who have a demonstrative moral desire to solve the overweight, obesity problem, there are also many who seek answers only to back up claims that their diet, pill or plan is superior to others and will help people lose weight. Smith contends that the prevailing ideas of the medical community are frequently guided by the concepts associated with dieting and weight loss programs, and in some cases even receive funding from them for research that is intended to bolster claims. Smith even claims that dieting itself may be the cause of decreased life span, rather than what has been traditionally associated with being overweight and/or obese.

Diet promoters emphasize the supposed health benefits and minimize risks related to dieting. People of all sizes are being misled about the extent and severity of the health risks associated with being fat and are told that being thin is the only way to good health and that dieting makes people thin. Many medical conditions traditionally attributed to obesity -- such as high blood pressure, elevated cholesterol, and heart and gallbladder problems -- often can be caused by the dieting process itself. Recent studies indicate that repeated "yo-yo" dieting may reduce one's lifespan. (Smith, 1995, p. 76)

Smith, may be a cry in the dark, as the traditional stand on weight has been almost exclusively associated with the physiology of weight, a simple equation of balance of activity and intake, rather than a complex symptom of convoluted problems including but not limited to psychological stress.

The other, equally important side of the energy balance equation is energy expenditures, both through physical activity and through dietary thermogenesis and the basal metabolic rate (BMR). Dietary thermogenesis refers to the energy required to digest meals, and the basal metabolic rate refers to the energy required to maintain the resting body's functions. For sedentary adults, physical activity is responsible for 30% of total energy expenditure, dietary thermogenesis for 10%, and BMR for the remaining 60%. (27) Several studies examine whether a low BMR is responsible for overweight in children. For example, in a study of both obese and non-obese adolescents, Bandini, Dale Schoeller, and William Dietz find that obese teens do not have lower-than-average BMR, and thus lowered energy expenditure through BMR is not the cause of maintained obesity in adolescents. (28) (Anderson & Butcher, 2006, p. 19)

Despite the findings of many that the energy balance is not the exclusive indicator of weight retention this is the equation that is offered to many, as a mainstay for the development of lifelong patterns of activity. This mainstay is offered to both children vicariously through parents who have learned this as a point of common understanding and to adults who demonstrate the need for simplicity in the confusion of the divergent information on the subject of weight loss and health maintenance.

In fact, the idea of energy imbalance simply restates the physical law of the conservation of energy, which holds that energy is never lost. So when we eat, the energy we consume does not disappear but is converted into some other form, such as body fat, or is utilized when we exercise and turned into mechanical and heat energy. For the 'body as machine' model to work, it must be possible to make robust generalizations about the impact of both a given amount of dietary intake and a given amount of physical activity on a person's body weight. For example, scientists who write about overweight and obesity are fond of calculating the energy cost of a given amount of physical activity and then arguing that if this amount of activity were added to, or subtracted from, a person's lifestyle, say everyday, then this would lead to a precise level of weight loss or gain. (Gard & Wright, 2004, p. 39)

Those who do not buy the idea that energy balance is the only source of weight retention, seek yet more physiological explanations, such as genetics. (Ross, 2004, p. 9) it is clear that all these factors are important and yet very little research has been done regarding the nature of the family unit and obesity or the nature of prolonged psychological stress. There is however significant evidence that socioeconomics have a part to play in the risk factors associated with obesity. In one research study socioeconomics of maternal work is discussed and a direct correlation is made between increased hours of work by the mother and the incidence of obesity (Anderson, Butcher & Levine, 2003, p. 30) yet once again the father is completely lost in the equation.

A clear sense that parental intervention is needed can be gleaned simply from obesity statistics, yet it is also clear that a defined set of goals for alternatives for at risk individuals is also needed.

Since the early 1970s, the prevalence of overweight has more than doubled among children aged two to five, almost quadrupled for children aged six to eleven, and more than doubled among adolescents aged twelve to nineteen. (1) During 1999-2000, the prevalence of overweight was 11.6% among toddlers aged six months to twenty-three months, 10.4% among children aged two to five years, 15.3% among children aged six to eleven, and 15.5% among adolescents. The health risks associated with childhood obesity, including asthma, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and depression, have led medical authorities to declare the rise in childhood obesity a public health crisis. (2)the epidemic of childhood obesity has many causes -- cultural, economic, and genetic (Cawley, 2006, p.69)

Yet, it is evident that most fathers choosing to abandon children are not thinking of the future weight of their daughters when they do so. It is therefore imperative that a greater understanding of the connections between obesity and paternal abandonment are made, and that where it is not possible to intervene for the sake of children to avoid such abandonment that other alternative interventions are created to counter the long-term affects of paternal abandonment. Ultimately, the goal of most civically responsible individuals and groups would be to avoid significant abandonment, such as is seen within the sample of this group, and yet this is not always possible. Single mothers and the communities in which these children live must become more conscious of alternative forms of support, for the development of healthy self-esteem and body image.

When discussing the diet, conundrum, previously touched on in this work, as it applies to children one group of experts had this to say:

Even though childhood obesity experts discourage dieting, parents who feel the need to control a child's weight commonly encourage dieting. Studies on dieting behaviors consistently report that their parents' inducement to diet is the most significant factor in causing children to begin dieting. Their parents' direct verbal encouragement is more influential than the parents' own dieting behaviors. Many adolescents whose parents urged them to diet report engaging in unhealthful dieting behaviors. Focusing on dieting for weight control may overemphasize the thinness ideal and over time may even lead to an increased risk for obesity.

(Lindsay, Sussner, Kim & Gortmaker, 2006, p. 169)

It is also clear that the call for restraint on diet behaviors, among children and adults has only recently been made. Children and their parents, no matter how many are in the home are still seeking diet behaviors, rather than lifestyle health as a weight loss strategy. The generation of women, studied in this work are in even greater risk as they have been systematically exposed to the concept of the diet as the only means of weight loss, for most if not all of their lives, and yet as you will see there is still a greater incidence of obese women who had experience paternal abandonment than among those who had not.

Psychological stress has only recently become a focus of medical professionals with regard to obesity, despite the fact that it has been associated with disease or a reduction in overall health for centuries. Recent studies, regarding type II diabetes show a common link between psychological stress events (in this case taking a math test) and insulin metabolism, a significant aspect of weight management, inside and outside of a disease state. The study also found that there is a genetic link to the level of insulin metabolism, and that some populations, i.e. those at recognized greater risk for the development of Type II Diabetes and therefore obesity, have an even worse response than others to psychological stressors. (Schneiderman, McCabe and Baum, 1992, p. 245) Stress and the disease process, including but not limited to obesity, is difficult to research, as aspects of psychological stress are not measurable, and scientific studies are limited to those that are immediate and might not be contextual or global, such as the generalized stress created by abandonment of the father, and all the risks that come with it, both psychological and physical.

Parents are key to developing a home environment that fosters healthful eating and physical activity among children and adolescents. Parents shape their children's dietary practices, physical activity, sedentary behaviors, and ultimately their weight status in many ways. Parents' knowledge of nutrition; their influence over food selection, meal structure, and home eating patterns; their modeling of healthful eating practices; their levels of physical activity; and their modeling of sedentary habits including television viewing are all influential in their children's development of lifelong habits that contribute to normal weight or to overweight and obesity. (1) (Lindsay, Sussner, Kim & Gortmaker, 2006, p. 169)

The indications of the lack of one parent, in the development of healthy lifestyle choices in children are therefore extreme. Children given the situation of a missing parent, not only lose the influence of that parent but are often faced with the loss of the other parent, as that parent must spend a greater period of time engaged in non-childrearing activities to support the family. It is therefore clear, that even without the connection of the prolonged stress of rejection and the decreased opportunity for either healthy or unhealthy influence on the part of the father that girls abandoned by their father between the ages of 6-19 will be at greater risk for obesity into adulthood, for many reasons.

Methodology

Initial Screening

Initial screening process was via phone by a contracted marketing research firm. Two questions were asked. What is your age? and.. Did you have a close relationship with your biological or adoptive father between the ages of 6 & 19? All subjects had to be between the ages of 30 & 70. I accepted the first 30 subjects who had a close relationship with their father (non-abandoned) and the first 30 who were abandoned (abandoned). I met with them and had them fill out questionnaire. If someone was overweight but not obese, they were excluded from participation.

Sample Population

The mean age of the whole study population is 50.2 (n60). The mean age of the abandoned group (a) is 53.3 and the mean age of the non-abandoned group (NA) is 47.1 with the mean age difference 6.2 years. The difference in age of the two groups could have some impact on obesity, yet most respondents noted that onset of overweight correlated to a much younger age (mean a 26.5) (mean NA 24.6). With regard to racial demographic there were 5 self-identifying Black participants with the remainder Caucasian in the abandoned group (group a) and 8 Black and remainder Caucasian in the non-abandoned group (group NA). The methodology of this work consists of the development of comparisons between demographic information gathered and the BMI, as defined by the definition of terms. Age is a serious consideration in this sample population as group a reported a 6.2% age differential with group NA being the younger. This age difference among the group can be significant in that the ages of the women surveyed can alter correlation findings, regarding demographic detail, as well as socioeconomic detail, access to health care and overall health of respondents not to mention the fact that the older a woman is the more likely she is to be overweight.

Findings:

Within the group of women who had significant involvement with their natural or adoptive father between the ages of 6 and 19 there were 13 (n30) (43%) who can be classified as obese, with a BMI of 30 or above, while in the group of women who had no involvement with their father between these ages there were 21 (n30) (70%) who can be classified as obese, by the same standard including 8 who's BMI is greater than 40 (defined as morbidly obese) (n30) (23%), as compared to the (father involved group) who only had 3 (n30) (10%).

Siblings

Those who are obese (and where abandoned by the father) were also much more likely than the other group to have one or more siblings who were overweight or obese. This may indicate a genetic link to obesity, or it could indicate an increased incidence of obesity among siblings, simply as a result of the multifaceted effects of childhood abandonment by the father. It is likely that both causal factors are at play, as well as many others.

Race

Race did not seem to have a demonstrative effect on the report of adult obesity, though it is interesting to see that contrary to popular myth that more black women were in the NA group than the a group though this is again a relatively small sample size. In group NA with 8 Black participants those with a BMI >30 was 4, and 30 and 5 had a BMI

Access to Healthcare

Access to health care in both groups correlated more to age (the younger participants being less likely to have access to health care than the older) and profession, as traditional types of employment that do not offer benefits where reflected as offering no access to health care. It is interesting that among both groups there was no difference in BMI between those who reported access to health care and those who did not. It is also interesting that among the group the majority reported having access to health care, despite recent health care insurance trends, but it is unknown as to what the participants perceived access to mean, as in do they pay out of pocket for care that they access or do they have insurance that covers health care in part or entirely. If the question is simply access, I believe most people in the U.S. can answer yes, though there is significant barriers for many to actually utilizing care, as access does not necessarily indicate ability to pay for care.