Information Technology and Its Uses

Information Technology and Its Uses in Nano Technology

(http://www.nano.ecs.soton.ac.uk/images/research/nanoelectronics/motheye_large.jpg)

Information Technology and Nanotechnology

The future of modem society is often referred to in terms of technology and particularly new and innovative technological discoveries. While from one perspective science and technology has been blamed for many of the ills of modern society, such as the threat of climate change, on the other hand discoveries associated with new technologies have also increased optimism with regard to a better future for humanity. (Murphy & Pardeck, xv) One need only think of the controversy about the discoveries in genetics and cloning, which is seen as positive from a medical point-of-view and condemned from various ideological and mortal perspectives.

Thinkers and scientists have also explored the ways in which technology will impact the 21st Century. Matthews (2002) refers to four key areas in science that are in the process of converging and which hold promise for the future. These areas are; "...nanoscale science and technology (nano), biological and biomedical science and technology (bio), information science and technology (info), and environmental science and technology (enviro)." (Matthews) Matthews explains that,

Each of these areas cuts a wide swath of territory and reaches into the traditional areas of science -- chemistry, biology, physics, mathematics, and earth science -- touching different subcommunities. The intellectual, technical, and commercial products of the interconnection among the sciences and engineering disciplines are reshaping our future.

Matthews)

This paper will explore the implications of these views in terms of the relationship and interaction between information technology and nanotechnology.

2. Overview

The link between information technology and nanotechnology is an area of ongoing speculation and interest in the scientific community. The way that nanotechnology also interacts with and relates to other technologies, particularly in the area of the advantages of miniaturization, is an aspect that will also receive attention in this paper.

In essence, the field of nanotechnology can be seen as."..the natural continuation of the miniaturization revolution that we have witnessed over the last decade, where millionth of a metre (10 -6m) tolerances (microengineering) became commonplace... "(WHAT IS NANOTECHNOLOGY?) the application of this technology can be seen for example in the automotive and aerospace industries. However, what is significant from the point-of-view of the present discussion is that the computer and information technology industry was the first to "push the limits of miniaturization" and promote the interaction between these two technologies.

This relationship is seen by many researchers as important and mutually beneficial. As one commentator on the relationship between nanotechnology and information technology emphasizes, "...many electronic devices we see today have nano features that owe their origins to the computer industry." (WHAT IS NANOTECHNOLOGY?) Nanotechnology can therefore be found in products such as, CD and DVD players and inkjet printers. It is this symbiotic relationship between these two technologies that is a central focus of this discussion.

2.1. Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is described as a new technology "...that had its birth within the information technology wave." (Dewick, Green, and Miozzo) While this technology has enormous potential there are at present still relatively few applications that have been created with nanotechnology. However, some researchers are of the opinion that, "...although nanotechnology's most pervasive impacts seem some way off, probably after 2020, it is likely that some nanotechnology products will make an impact on the industrial scene before then." (Dewick, Green, and Miozzo)

In essence nanotechnology is understood as the "... technology of designing, fabricating and applying nanosystems. A nanosysytem is a system that is synthesised to a nanometre scale... " (Kurup P.) the term nanotechnology comes from the Greek word meaning " dwarf." (WHAT IS NANOTECHNOLOGY?) the actual measurement of a nanometre is one billionth (10 -9) of a meter, which is the length of ten hydrogen atoms. (WHAT IS NANOTECHNOLOGY

The origins of this technology can be traced back to the ability to view atoms and molecules by means of microscopes. This only became possible when a new and more effective type of microscope was developed in the latter part of the Twentieth Century by IBM. (WHAT IS NANOTECHNOLOGY

This is an initial indication of the importance that the information technology industry has had for the development of nanotechnology.

One common but rather simplistic definition of nanotechnology is 'engineering at a very small scale'. (WHAT IS NANOTECHNOLOGY?) While this goes some way to explaining the way that nanotechnology is applied in areas such as medicine, manufacturing and computing, and even to textiles and cosmetics, yet it does not fully explain the depth and potentialities of this technology.

If one is to appreciate the potential of this technology it is important to understand the two basic approaches that are used in applied nanotechnology. The first and most prevalent approach is termed the "top down" approach. This is explained as the "... process of scaling down bulk structures to the nano-scale, using etching and machining techniques." (Nanotechnology - an Introduction) This applies to the above-mentioned definition.

However, the true potential of this technology lies in the "bottom up" approach - which is also referred to as molecular nanotechnology or advanced micro-machining technology. This approach refers to the actual building or creation of a nano structures through the accumulation and manipulation of atoms and molecules. Examples of the ways in this approach can be used is in nano-manipulation or the direct control of individual components as well as self-assembly, which refers to building blocks automatically arrangement into desired patterns. (Nanotechnology - an Introduction)

One of the many advantages of this technology is in the creation of new and extremely small amounts of rare material - which implies that it is a technology that does not waste or use rare materials excessively and it can also make use of recycled materials. One example given of this economy of usage is that in nanotechnology "... The design of new catalysts at the nanometer level (nano catalysts) can replace the use of rare materials" and " the design of light and strong materials for micro devices can lead to savings in energy." (Nanotechnology - an Introduction)

Furthermore, nanotechnology is seen as an essential step in the next generation of electrical and computational devices. As many studies note," it is common knowledge that modern science has come up against many walls or limitations that cannot be overcome with the present state of technology." (Molecular nanotechnology) it therefore follows that if computers and other devices and components can be developed at a nano-scale there is the possibility that these limits of technology can be overcome. With regard to computers this would mean a shortened links between devices and reduced electrical resistance. (Molecular nanotechnology) This is an aspect that will be dealt with in more detail in the discussion on technological convergence in the sections below.

2.2. A brief history of nanotechnology

One of the central underlying perceptions that form the foundation of nanotechnology was suggested by Richard Feynman in 1959. This was the view that almost any chemically stable structure can in fact be built. Feynman stated that, "The principles of physics, as far as I can see, do not speak against the possibility of maneuvering things atom by atom." (Nanotechnology - an Introduction) This view was to initiate the thought processes and the innovative ideas that would lead to the actualization of nanotechnology.

The actual term 'nanotechnology' was initially used by Norio Taniguchi of the University of Tokyo in 1974, when he used the term to differentiate submicron technology from micron-level technology. (Nanotechnology - an Introduction) the popularization of molecular technology was mainly due to the writing and research of Eric Drexler and his work, "Engines of Creation" (1996). This book is considered to be the defining book for molecular nanotechnology. (Nanotechnology - an Introduction)

Drexler is in fact credited with the initiation of molecular manufacturing. He realized that potential of molecular machines that could control the chemical manufacture of various products. In Engines of Creation Drexler discussed this type of manufacturing process. Drexler would go on to bring the possibilities of nanotechnology to the world with his 1992 publication Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation. This technical work outlined "... A way to manufacture extremely high-performance machines out of molecular carbon lattice ("diamondoid")." (Phoenix) Drexler was also involved in various forms of activism to raise awareness of the potential and the possibilities of this new form of technology. This was to result in the founding the Foresight Institute in 1986. (Phoenix)

Drexler's works were used extensively to promote and advance the acceptance of nanotechnology. The publication of Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation is now being taught at the Universities in the United States. Funding is of course an important component in the testing and the advancement of any new technology. Federal funding for nanotechnology was started under President Clinton with the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI). (Phoenix)

An overview of some of the highlights in the historical development of nanotechnology sheds some light on its contemporary importance as well as its relationship to information technology. The first nanotechnology journal was published in 1990. Nanotechnology attempted to show the potential of this new technology and included the wide range of fields that are connected to the concept of the nanometer scale. These include machining, imaging, metrology or measurement, micromachines, instrumentation and machine tools, scanning probe microscopy, fabrication of components, nanoelectronics, molecular engineering, among others. (Journal Review: Nanotechnology)

Another important step in the development of this technology in both a practical and theoretical sense was the development of " bottoms up" programs and research initiatives. As noted above, the 'bottoms up' approach is considered to be the area where the greatest potential for nanotechnology applications exist. In 1991 Japan's Science and Technology Agency began instituted a "bottom-up" approach, in which "...very small structures are built up from molecular components using, for example, scanning probe microscopes. "(Nanotechnology Race: MITI Adopts 'Bottom-Up' Strategy_)

Since the 1990s there have been an increasing number of developments that have contributed to the advance and acceptance of this new technology. For example, an important step in the development of this technology was the discovery of carbon nanotubes in 1991 by Sumio Iijima. Carbon naotubes are described in technical terms as follows:

single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) can be considered to be formed by the rolling of a single layer of graphite (called a graphene layer) into a seamless cylinder. A multiwall carbon nanotube (MWCNT) can similarly be considered to be a coaxial assembly of cylinders of SWCNTs, like a Russian doll, one within another; the separation between tubes is about equal to that between the layers in natural graphite. Hence, nanotubes are one-dimensional objects with a well-defined direction along the nanotube axis that is analogous to the in-plane directions of graphite.

Nanotubes and Buckyballs)

In more practical terms this mean that nanotubes have the potential to become one of the most important materials in this new and exciting technology due to the fact that "...it has been calculated that nanotube-based material has the potential to become 50-100 times stronger than steel at one sixth of the weight." (Research, Development and Market Applications for Nanomaterials and Carbon Nanotubes) There are many possible applications for this material, which includes space and aircraft manufacture and automobiles and construction. (Research, Development and Market Applications for Nanomaterials and Carbon Nanotubes).

An extremely important development in the more recent history of nanotechnology is the interaction and the symbiosis between this technology and computer and information technology. Important in this regard is NASA's investigation of the possibilities that existed in computational nanotechnology in 1996. NASA's

Numerical Aerodynamic Simulation Systems Division began leading in this area of research. It was envisaged that, "Some forms of nanotechnology appear to have enormous potential to improve aerospace and computer systems. Computational nanotechnology -- the design and simulation of programmable molecular machines -- is crucial to progress." (NASA Unit Putting Major Resources into Computational Nanotechnology)

The following are some of the important date and events that contributed to the present prominence of nanotechnology.

1998 the f irst DNA-based nanomechanical device. A DNA-based Nanomechanical Device was created by researcher at New York University. This was seen as the "...first step towards the development of nano-robots that might some day construct individual molecules in molecular-scale factories." (Nadrian Seeman's NYU Team Creates a DNA-based Nanomechanical Device)

First nanomedicine book published in 1999.

2000. President Clinton announces U.S. National Nanotechnology Initiative. Clinton also emphasizes "the importance of expanding basic research in both the physical and biological sciences." (MARKOFF) the future possibilities of this technology are referred to. These include; "...developing ultralight materials that are 10 times as strong as steel; creating a new class of computer chip...doubling the efficiency of solar cells; using gene and drug-delivery technologies to detect and target cancerous cells..." (MARKOFF)

Other important events were; the first report on the nanotech industry in 2001; the first policy conference on advanced nanotech in 2004; the establishment of the first center for nanomechanical system in 2004 and a call for experimentation toward molecular manufacturing by the National Academies Nanotechnology Report in 2006. (a Short History of Nanotechnology)

2.3. Possibilities and potential

2.3.1. Properties

In order to understand the possibilities and potential that exist in nanotechnology, especially with regard to the way that nanotechnology and information technology interact and influence one another, it is important to understand various aspects and properties that occur at the nano level. As one pundit states; "At nanoscale dimensions the properties of materials no longer depend solely on composition and structure in the usual sense. Nanomaterials display new phenomena associated with quantized effects and with the preponderance of surfaces and interfaces." (Nanotechnology) in other words, nano material exhibits properties and characteristics that are not normally observed in the word of larger object and that these properties can only be described in terms of the science of quantum physics. For example,

When the size of structures is comparable to the quanta themselves, it influences how these excitations move through and interact in the material. Small structures may limit flow, create wave interference effects, and otherwise bring into play quantum mechanical selection rules not apparent at larger dimensions.

Nanotechnology)

In other words, the field of nanotechnology opens new and extensive possibilities for the development of potentially useful applications that are not subject to the normal limitations of physics. This theoretical view has already had practical outcomes. For example, billions of microscopic "nanowhiskers," each about 10 nanometres in length, have been molecularly hooked onto natural and synthetic fibres to impart stain resistance to clothing and other fabrics; zinc oxide nanocrystals have been used to create invisible sunscreens that block ultraviolet light; and silver nanocrystals have been embedded in bandages to kill bacteria and prevent infection

Nanotechnology)

Some of these outcomes as they relate to information technology will be discussed below.

2.3.2. Present application and future potential.

As have been referred to, many pundits see the future of this type of technology in bottom-up technology or molecular nanotechnology. To reiterate, this stresses the process whereby, ".... organic and inorganic structures are created atom by atom, molecule by molecule." (Dewick, Green, and Miozzo) at present nanotech research is focused on the development of material such as carbon nanotubes and quantum dots and concerned with the fabrication of various tools and instruments. (Dewick, Green, and Miozzo) This research is intended to have an effect on the field of informatics - which includes electronics, magnetics and optics. (Dewick, Green, and Miozzo)

There are enormous possibilities for this area of research. The manufacture of lighter and stronger material at a much lower cost to the environment is only one option that seems likely for the future. Allied to this is the development of, " Nanocoatings for both opaque and translucent surfaces may render them resistant to corrosion, scratches, and radiation." (Nanotechnology)

Of core interest in terms of the present discussion in the way that nanotechnology is seen to interface with and impact on information technology. This refers as well to nanoscale electronic, magnetic, and mechanical devices and systems, which have "...unprecedented levels of information processing." (Nanotechnology)

There are a host of other innovations and fabrications that are possible in the field of nanotechnology. For instance molecular-semiconductor hybrid devices that "...may become engines for the next revolution in the information age." (WHAT IS NANOTECHNOLOGY?) One should also bear in mind the potential that his technology has in terms of health and the improvement of the quality of life. As one study indicates, nanotechnology is already providing solutions to existing medical problems, as well as social and environmental problems. (WHAT IS NANOTECHNOLOGY

Today, the improved knowledge of how the body functions at the cellular, or 'nano', level is leading to many new and better medical techniques. For example, we know that the earlier a disease can be detected, the easier it is to remedy. To achieve this, research is focussing on introducing into the body specially designed nanoparticles, which are composed of tiny fluorescent 'quantum dots' that are 'bound' to targeting antibodies.

WHAT IS NANOTECHNOLOGY

The development of techniques such as 'quantum dots' are extremely important in terms of new medical applications and solutions. It should also be remembered that these development also require computer and information technology input.

A nano technological discovery that should be noted at this point is terms of exploring the interface between nanotechnology and information technology, is the creation and potential of carbon nanotubes. This has been referred to as the."Miracle Material of the 21st Century? (WHAT IS NANOTECHNOLOGY?) Nanotubes are"...highly conductive both to electricity and heat, with an electrical conductivity as high as copper, and a thermal conductivity as great as diamond." (WHAT IS NANOTECHNOLOGY?) the significance of this invention is that they hold untold possibilities for the creation of nanoelectronic circuits and computers.

3. Information technology

3.1. Overview and background

It is common knowledge that advances and developments in the field of information technology in the 20th and 21st centuries have changed the way we live, communicate and interact.

Today, many of us make contacts on a global scale, and these interconnections will expand further and deeper in the world's population as we become able to sit around a table -- whether business or personal -- in virtual space. Communication is just one arena in which the scientific discoveries and technological developments of the past three decades have been the catalyst for unprecedented social and economic change.

Matthews)

What is even more significant is that advances in this field suggest that there are many new development s and possibilities yet to be achieved. The intersection between nanotechnology and information technology is one of the most interesting and potentially fruitful areas for the future. As has already been referred to, information technology has played an important role in the development and advancement of nanotechnology.

However, this can best be understood in term of the way that a number of emerging technologies are symbiotically interlinked in what has been termed a new age for technology. As one pundit explains:

Advances in bio/nano/materials/info technologies are combining to enable devices and systems with potential global effects on individual and public health and safety; economic, social and political systems; and business and commerce. The emerging technology revolution, together with the ongoing process of globalization enabled by the information technology and continued improvements in transportation on the one hand opens up possibilities for increased life span, economic prosperity, and quality of life, and on the other hand introduces further difficulties with privacy and ethical issues (e.g., in biomedical research).

Matthews)

The above view is quoted at length as it suggests the central role that information technology plays in the development of these other technologies..

3.2. Brief history

The history of information technology correctly begins with the invention of writing and other communicative inventions such as the telephone. However, in a more modern context, the term information technology refers to the invention of the computer and to the microchip, which facilitated the growth of the modern information and communications industry. This is a development that supasases all other advances in information communications.

The history of information technology is often divided into a number of different periods with similar characteristics. These are; Premechanical, Mechanical, Electromechanical, and Electronic.(a History of Information Technology and Systems)

Very briefly, the Premechanical Age is placed between 3000 B.C. - 1450 a.D. And is characterized by the invention of writing and alphabets. This also refers to a period when permanent storage of information in books was to become commonplace among the elite.

The Mechanical Age (1450-1840) is commonly understood as the period when the first " information explosion" took place. This refers in particular to Johann Gutenberg and the invention of the movable metal-type printing process in 1450. (a History of Information Technology and Systems)

The Electromechanical Age (1840-1940) was the period when electricity was harnessed and when electrical impulses were used in the promotion of information and communication technology. This is the era that saw the start of telecommunication. Central to this era is the invention of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell and the beginning of electromechanical computing

The present age is termed as the Electronic Age, which extends from 1940 to the present. This period is characterized by the invention of electronic vacuum tubes and the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC). (a History of Information Technology and Systems) This was followed by the first computer for commercial use, the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) and the four generations of digital computers. (a History of Information Technology and Systems) Vacuum tubes were replaced by transistors. Information technology developed and transistors were overtaken by integrated circuits and eventually in the present 'age' by microprocessors.

In essence this snapshot history of computers and information technology shows how the development of this industry is one of a reduction of size with a concomitant increase in processing power. This process is analogous and has reference to the aims of nanotechnology and suggests the possibilities of computer and information systems that are driven by nano and quantum technology.

3.3. The importance and future implications of information technology

Simply stated, "Information technology has altered the way in which we do research, providing new tools and allowing acquisition, analysis, and interpretation of data in an unprecedented manner." (Matthews) the field of information technology also has a far-reaching and profound effect on other technologies such as the biological/biomedical sciences "... with the ability to manipulate DNA sequences transformed biology, reunifying at a fundamental level its fragmented branches." (Matthews) Biological research has been affected by the possibilities provide by information technology; for example in the area of genetic engineering as well as in the development of methods to provide nonrejectable materials for bone or organ transplants and many other aspects. (Matthews) further example of the interaction between information technologies and nanotechnology is IBM's research into nano structures that self-assemble. The literature also points out that the interaction between nanotechnology and information technology is a two - way process.

An article which sheds more light on the way that information technology and nanotechnology are relevant to one another is I.B.M. Researchers Advancing Computer Processing Ability by John Markoff (2007). The article discusses that claim by various researchers at I.B.M. laboratories that, progress has been made in the endeavor to store information and computing at the level of individual atoms... It is on this basis that the researchers are intending to develop electronic components, which will be significantly smaller than transistors and wires that are commonly used today.

Markoff)

This refers to the "...a technique for reading and writing digital ones and zeroes onto a small group of atoms and even on individual atoms." (Markoff) However, the way that information science and technology have affected the development of nanotechnology can best to understand in terms of the concept of convergence.

4. Convergence: information technology and nanotechnology

Information technology and information technology are linked together in many ways and tend to benefit one another. As Ant n, Silberglitt, and Schneider (2001) state,

These areas are inextricably linked to each other: Processing determines properties that in turn determine performance. Moreover, the sensitivity of instrumentation and measurement capability is often the enabling factor in optimizing processing, for example, as for nanotechnology and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)

Ant n, Silberglitt, and Schneider 18)

In other words, the processing possibilities offered by modern information technologies are beneficial in the research and implementation of nanotechnology in many instances. Conversely, the advancement of nanotechnology has led to the possibility of reducing computer storage space and of even offering radically new forms of computer processing through quantum mechanics and the development of "quantum computers." This has led to a growing body of research on convergence or the integration and interaction between various technologies, which includes nanotechnology and information technology.

The importance of convergence is already obvious to many scientists, especially the regard to the possibilities of Quantum-Switch-Based Computing. As one study emphasizes;

One potential long-term solution for overcoming obstacles to increased computational power is computing based on devices that take advantage of various quantum effects. The core innovation in this work is the use of quantum effects, such as spin polarization of electrons, to determine the state of individual switches. This is in contrast to more traditional microelectronics, which are based on macroscopic properties of large numbers of electrons, taking advantage of materials properties of semiconductors.

Ant n, Silberglitt, and Schneider 25)

On the other hand, "Many researchers have used MEMS technologies as analytical tools in...areas of nanotechnology..." (Ant n, Silberglitt, and Schneider 25)

One example of the integration of these technologies is in the area nanoscale instrumentation and measurement technology.." Small, microscale, special-purpose optical and chemical sensors have been used for some time in sophisticated laboratory equipment, along with microprocessors for signal processing and computation. "(Ant n, Silberglitt, and Schneider 25) Studies also note that,.".. As these sensors become more sophisticated and more integrated with computational capability (with the aid of systems-on-a-chip), their utility should grow tremendously, especially in the biomedical arena. (Ant n, Silberglitt, and Schneider 25) in essence computational factors are becoming an increasingly significant aspect in various types of nanotechnological applications.

Furthermore, nanotechnology provides an array of advantages for integrated information and computer systems. This can range from integrated information systems that can be produced at a low cost through nanotechnology, to impressive results the can be achieved with the potential for parallelism through nanotechnology.