Physics by Aristotle, Book 2,

Physics by Aristotle, Book 2, Human Form and Matter Causality, matter and form: In defense of Book II of Aristotle's Physics According to Aristotle, the nature of the human form is often a reciprocal cause and effect of human behavior: for example, hard work causes physical fitness; the physical fitness of the human form is motivation for the individual to work.

Anecdotally, this can be observed even in a gym today: those who find exertion easier because of their high level of physical fitness are able to work out harder and longer, and contribute to that physical fitness. Individuals who are not physically fit struggle, cannot work out for as long a period of time, and do not improve the shape of their body as quickly.

In this example, and in terms of Aristotle's observations about the human form, the nature of matter, and the relationship of form and matter, the Greek philosopher's arguments are still relevant and convincing today, although crafted many centuries ago before scientific notions of evolution, DNA, and matter became established aspects of science. Matter determines the expression of form, and form determines the activities and expression of matter. Aristotle's theories allow the linkage between the body and the brain in a way that is presciently modern.

For example, far more impressive than the human body is the human capacity for abstract thought. The human mind, which has evolved in its capacity for intellectual foresight, has created a world where for most people the body is less important than the mind.

The form, namely the physical biology of the human brain, directs us to behave in a way that is human and allows us to use our bodies to change our environments: humans cannot run as fast as a cheetah or an antelope; humans are less fierce than lions, but the human minds allow us to create labor-saving devices to obtain food, shelter, and pleasure that compensate for our weaker physical abilities, relative to other creatures in the animal kingdom.

The complexity of our minds is likewise reciprocal in nature: we need high-quality protein to think and develop our cognitive and physical capacity to find food. Our ability to get food more easily allows us to develop both our minds and bodies. Once we trapped our prey, now we create it through industrialized means.

The form of our bodies and the needs of our bodies create our environments -- even while, of course, the environment also 'creates' us (such as our omnivorous eating habits as a species) and the nature of our bodies (making us less physically fit than previous generations, even while we grow more technologically sophisticated). Aristotle did not know about natural selection and the evolutionary process, but his philosophy is complementary to that idea.

The environment is the 'cause' of our form, because certain forms are better able to survive and thus reproduce. Aristotle's ideas also support the notion of several causes of the same phenomenon: dogs, for example, have evolved into their current form because natural selection favored certain kinds of wolves that were able to co-exist with humans, but dogs' current forms are also due to selective human breeding.

The dog's form is thus caused by its original state of matter as a sociable mammal, but other causal influences have shaped its current state of being. Likewise, a bronze statute is created by the 'being' in the world as a piece of metal, or the matter of the raw material. It is also dependent upon the sculptor's art, which is itself a product of the artist's ability: his human intelligence, craft, and ability to use his hands.

However, although a dog may be bred to look a certain way, and to be a certain size, it still retains its integrity as part of natural matter. Aristotle uses the example of a wooden bed that is buried: because of its matter it will put forth shoots and grow as a tree, reflecting its matter and telos or purpose -- it will not grow into a bed, as this shape is artificially imposed upon the wood.

A parallel in a dog might be putting a dog in a baby carriage and dressing it like a doll: altering the dog through artifice will not change its essential matter as a sniffing, breathing, eating animal creature. Putting makeup on the human face does not render a human being into something other than its essential nature: even altering a person's face through plastic surgery does not fundamentally change his or her 'matter' or DNA.

The individual is likely to pass the same nose shape onto his or her offspring, not the superficially and artificially altered nose. Aristotle's understanding of the world is highly sophisticated because it encompasses the biological and chemical nature of human physiology, as well as the impact of the material world upon the body. Both matter and environmental influences impact what we become: our matter or genetic predispositions ensure that we become human beings, and manifest certain traits, such as tallness, a tendency to have high cholesterol, or sociability.

Our form is determined by the properties.