Case study method for researching smoking cessation programs

¶ … Psychology

Learning Outcome

The best method for conducting the study would involve the use of a case study. Since this would be a group, setting, the case study method would allow the researcher to conduct in-depth investigations. Case studies offer the researcher an opportunity to use various data gathering sources like interviews, and observations (Halligan & Marshall, 2013). In order for the researcher to conduct an in-depth study of the subjects, the case study would offer an effective method for data gathering. The researcher would manage to immerse him/herself into the group or could make observations as the participants attend their quit smoking classes. Being a participant would allow the other participants to open up to the researcher more easily. Since the classes mostly consist of around 20 people, this makes it a small number and easy for the researcher to deal with. A case study method would ensure that the researcher manages to study each participant and establishes the subject's life, and history (Huitema, 2011). The information gathered would allow the researcher to understand the background of the subject and understand why they begun smoking. The reason behind their desire to quit smoking would also be discovered using case study. The possibility that the case study could be generalized for all the subject's is not possible. This ensures that the researcher cannot lie regarding either of the subject. The researcher would have to conduct an analysis for each of the subject's. The researcher could immerse him/herself into the group and carry out individual interviews. This would offer the researcher first-hand information, which is vital for data gathering. The study carried out would be a prospective study since the subjects would be a group of people and the researcher would be observing the subjects in order to establish outcomes.

Four schedules of reinforcement

Reinforcement is a terminology used in operant conditioning to denote anything that would increase the likelihood of a response taking place (Mace, Pratt, Zangrillo, & Steege, 2011). The effect that reinforcement has on a behavior will define the kind of reinforcement employed. Anything that would increase or strengthen a behavior is considered a reinforcement. It can include an event, stimuli, or a situation. The two main kinds of reinforcement are positive and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by offering an effect the individual would find rewarding. If the required behavior is achieved, the individual would receive a reward. This is considered a positive reinforcement. When a reward is received, the behavior is strengthened, and the individual is most likely to repeat the same in order for them to receive another or similar reward. Negative reinforcement would still promote the required behavior, but in a different manner. Anything unpleasant would be removed if the individual displays the favorable behavior. This would also strengthen the behavior.

The four schedules that could be used to change the behavior of the child are fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval schedules. These schedules fall under partial reinforcement, which has been identified as the best way learn a new behavior. Using partial reinforcement the parents can teach the child how to stop urinating in bed slowly, and the behavior learned would be effective for longer time. Partial reinforcement has a specified time interval that the subject is reinforced only once. This would be effective for the child because the parents would require that he go for a couple of nights without urinating before they reward him.

Fixed-ratio schedules require that a reward be offered once the subject has reached a specified number of responses (Everly, Holtyn, & Perone, 2014). Using this schedule, the subject would have to maintain a high, steady rate of response. The only time they would pause is immediately after receiving a reward. In the case of John, the parents could let him know that if he goes for three nights in a row without urinating in bed they would offer him a reward or treat. This would motivate John to stop urinating in bed at least for those three nights. Once the first reward is achieved, the parents could observe him for the next two nights to establish if he has learned how to control his bladder at night. If John still urinates in bed, then the parents could implement the same strategy, but this time they increase the number of nights. Once he has managed to redeem the reward, the parents should increase the number of nights. There should be breaks in between to establish if the new behavior has been learned. Increasing the number of nights would allow John to learn how to control his bedwetting.

The second schedule is variable-ratio schedule where there is no predetermined number of responses before a reward is given. Making use of this schedule results in a high steady rate of responses. Since the subject is unaware of when they will receive the reward, they will continue performing the required behavior until they receive a reward. This schedule is mostly employed by gambling and lottery games. In the case of John, this schedule might be more effective that fixed-ration schedules. This is because he would be more likely to stop bedwetting if he was unaware of when the reward would come. Maintaining the hope that a reward is underway would push John not to wet his bed. On the night he fails to control his bladder, he might feel like that was the day he was going to receive a reward. This is a better way to teach him how to stop bedwetting. To ensure that he does not feel cheated, the parents should not go for more than a week initially. After the first month, they could increase the number of nights to a maximum of two weeks. Remaining unpredictable would force John to learn how to control his bedwetting without an outlook of reward. Not knowing when the reward would come is beneficial to the parents.

Fixed-interval schedules are similar to fixed-ration schedules only difference is that fixed-interval would only reward after a specified time has elapsed. When the specified interval is reaching its end, there is an increased number of responses, but after the reinforcer the responses are a bit slow. John's parents would specify that if he manages to go for a specified time without bedwetting they would reward him. Initially John might not be receptive, but as the realization dawns on him and the interval approaching its completion, he will try to stop wetting his bed. This schedule results in slow behavior response, and there is a likelihood of the subject losing interest. If the only time he would receive, a reward is after not wetting his bed the first time and waiting for a couple of days to receive his reward, the probability of him quitting this habit is reduced.

Variable-interval schedules refer to situations where the subject is rewarded after an unpredictable time has elapsed (Everly et al., 2014). This schedule would result in a slow, steady rate of responses. Failing to wet his bed would not automatically result in a reward, and John would have to wait for a while before he receives any reward. This schedule has the effect of teaching John how to stop bed wetting slowly, and not because of the rewards he would receive. Altering the schedule ensures that John cannot predict when he could expect a reward. Initially since he would not know when the reward would come, he would find it hard not to wet his bed, but after a few tries and receiving a reward for them, he would try to maintain this behavior in order to receive more rewards. The unpredictability of the rewards would encourage him to maintain and adapt to the new behavior. Within no time, the parents will find that John has stopped wetting the bed without any rewards.

Factors that determine if a stimuli applied to John will control or affect their bedwetting include punishment, fear, and anxiety. The parents could punish John every time he wet the bed. Since punishment causes pain to John, there is a possibility that it would affect his bedwetting. John would after some time stop wetting the bed because he does not want to be punished. This is a positive stimulus since punishment can be avoided by not wetting the bed. Learning and associating failure to urinate in bed with a positive outcome would result in the preference to perform the same behavior over and over. There would be an avoidance response from John, because he would try his best to avoid punishment. Negative reinforcement could also be effective in stopping or teaching a new behavior. Fear is another stimulus that the parents could use to affect John's bedwetting. Knowing there is a negative event that would take place if he wet the bed, John could learn how to control his bladder or wake up to urinate. Controlling the bladder would be the ultimate response, but waking up and urinating would result in the same positive outcome.

Positive reinforcement could also be used to affect John's bedwetting. Using positive reinforcement like rewards or praises would lead to John stopping to wet the bed eventually. If he wets the bed John would receive negative feedback and scorning from the parents, but whenever he does not wet his bed the parents would reward or offer praises. The positive reinforcement would be a stimulus for him to stop wetting his bed. Associating his failure to wet the bed with positive outcomes would result in John adapting a new behavior, since he would rather receive praises from his parents.

Learning Outcome 3

The social psychology phenomenon described in the scenario is attribution. According to Shaver (2012) attribution is the procedure of establishing the cause of behaviors or events. Using attribution an individual can easily explain the causes of an event or behavior even if they were not there personally. Attribution is something that people do all the time and sometime without realizing. The biases that people have in regard to a situation or event will influence how they attribute something. In the scenario presented, it is clear that all the people who were questioned had underlying biases in regards to the situation yet they were all wrong. Blaming external forces instead of taking action when they heard the screams, all the people were attributing the event to what they believe. Blaming external forces is easier for people to justify the events that take place (Graham & Folkes, 2014). The biases that people have will determine if they will blame external or internal forces when an event occurs. The attributions that a person makes on a daily basis will have a direct effect on their feelings and how they think in regards to the events taking place within their life.

There are three types of attribution people use on a daily basis. Interpersonal attribution occurs when a person paints him/herself in a positive light when they are telling a story. This kind of attribution ensures that the people listening to the story will view the person in another light after they listen to the story. Predictive attribution would occur when a person attempts to make future predictions. In the scenario, the couple that posited the alley was dangerous, and the police were not increasing their patrols had made a predictive attribution. This goes to indicate that the couple had heard, seen, or experienced something negative at that alley. Their failure to act is informed by the fact that they saw no reason since they believed the police would not respond in time. Explanatory attribution is used to make sense of the things taking place around us. People can either have a pessimistic or optimistic explanatory style. Based on the explanatory style a person has, the explanation they have on the events taking place around them will demonstrate this. For the couple that thought it was another couple having an argument, this shows they had an optimistic explanatory style. They did not associate the screams to any negative event, and they assumed the couple would eventually stop fighting.

Attribution is thought to occur because of the perceptions that people have, which are influenced by past experiences, and the expectations that people have and their needs (Weiner, 2012). When a person has undergone a negative event in the past, they would easily associate the negativity to another similar event. For example, if a person parks his/her car and the next morning, they find the car has been vandalized. They will blame the garage where they parked, and they will not park their again. In such a case, if they ever hear of a friend or relative wanting to park at that garage, they will openly discourage them and use the event as an explanation. The person would not be willing to understand that his/her case was a random event and not the norm. The perceptions that a person has will have a direct effect on the attributions they will make in life. For the scenario presented, it is clear that the people interviewed all had different perceptions and past experiences regarding the event. The individuals all acted differently, but none of them came to the rescue of the young woman. These individuals all had past experiences regarding the alley, and they used these experiences to justify their reactions and attributions. None of the individuals shows any remorse or concern since they have experienced this before, and it was nothing major. It is natural for people to attribute negative results with external forces. If any of the individuals had called the police instead of making the assumptions they made, the case would have been quite different. Blaming external forces is easy for people then taking responsibility for an event. Placing blame makes a person feel good about him/herself. Personal responsibility is not something that people like taking if the results are negative.

The expectations that people have regarding life will also result in attribution. If a person expects that they will pass an exam, but they fail, they will automatically deny responsibility. Since the person had great expectations for the exam, they would be disappointed and they only way they know how to deal with the result is blaming external forces. If the results were positive, they would have laid praise on him/herself. The self-serving bias that people have ensures that they can protect their self-esteem. The scenario presented demonstrates the expectations of the individuals. Ms. J was not willing to take action and instead convinced herself that another person closer to her would make the call. Mr. & Mrs. A blamed the police, and they had expected that they would increase the patrols along that alley. Therefore, they did not see why they should bother calling. Since their expectations were not met, the couple was disappointed and opted not to take any action.

Learning Outcome 4

Piaget's theory of cognitive development is a theory regarding nature and development of the human intelligence. The theory was developed Jean Piaget, who was a developmental psychologist. Piaget held on to the belief that a person's childhood would play an important role in the growth of their intelligence (Modgil, Modgil, & Brown, 2013). He also posited that a child learns by actively exploring and doing. According to Piaget, cognitive development was continuous reorganization of mental processes that result from environmental experience and biological maturation. Piaget believed that children constructed an understanding of their world, and then they will experience discrepancies with what they know and what they discover. Cognitive development was claimed to be at the center of human organism. Parents were encouraged to offer a supportive and rich environment for their children in order to activate the child's natural desire to learn and grow. Piaget's theory is different from the theories of others because his is only concerned with children. His theory focuses on development and not learning. Therefore, his theory does not cover the learning of information or acquiring certain behaviors. Lastly, his theory differs from others because it proposes discrete developmental stages that are marked by qualitative differences and not the complexity of behaviors and increase in number. The main goal of the theory is explaining the processes and mechanism through which an infant develops to be an individual who thinks and reasons using hypotheses.

Lev Vygotsky proposed social development theory. The work of Vygotsky has been the foundation of much theory and research in cognitive development in the past several decades. Social development theory has been developed from the work of Vygotsky. Social development theory stresses on the fundamental role that social interaction plays in the development of cognition. Vygotsky (2012) believed that the community plays a vital role in the individual's process of making meaning. Vygotsky differed with Piaget because he believed that learning was a universal and necessary aspect of the development process especially in human psychological function. According to Vygotsky, social interaction would precede development. Cognition and consciousness are the results of social behavior and socialization. Vygotsky's theory differs from Piaget's in a couple of ways. His theory places emphasis on culture shaping cognitive development, which contradicts Piaget's view. Vygotsky placed considerable emphasis on how social factors contribute to cognitive development. Vygotsky criticized Piaget for not placing emphasis on the role that language plays in cognitive development. Piaget posited that language was dependent on thought in for one to develop language. Vygotsky on the other hand viewed the two as separate initially, and they only merge when a person reaches the age of three.

Information processing is at the heart of cognitive psychology. In the same way that a computer takes in information, Cognitive psychology views an individual like a processor for information in order to produce an output. The theory posits that individuals process the information they receive, and they do not merely respond to stimuli (Wyer Jr., 2014). Information processing theory addresses the fact that as children grow, their brains grow too, which leads to the advancement in their abilities to process and respond to the received information. A continuous pattern of development is emphasized by the theory. This is in direct contrast to what Piaget believed regarding cognitive development. In the same way that a computer receives information and processes the information, stores the information, and later makes use of the information. Cognitive psychologists perceived the human mind as similar to the computer. Human thought is assumed to work in the same way as a computer. Thinking is the environment that gives the brain input, and the input is transformed (processed) by the senses.

Elizabeth Kubler-Ross' Stages of Grief

The five stages of grief is considered a series of emotional stages that an individual would experience after losing a partner through death. According to Kubler-Ross and Kessler (2014) the five stages are denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. This model is accredited to the Swiss Psychiatrist Elisabeth Kubler-Ross. The models was inspired by her work with terminally ill patients. The lack of curriculum in most medical schools regarding death and dying motivated her to study death and those who faced it. The stages proposed by the model are not complete and this a fact that Elisabeth admitted. She also noted that not all individuals faced with the death of a partner or family member experience all five responses. The stages do not follow any particular order, and a person can experience them in any order. Though the public has accepted this model, its validity has not been consistently supported by research. Though Kubler-Ross mostly concentrated on bereavement and death, the grief cycle is quite useful in understanding the emotional reactions of people undergoing personal change and trauma.

The refusal to accept the information or facts regarding the situation is considered denial. This could be unconscious or conscious denial. Kubler-Ross has posited that denial is a defense mechanism that a person employs in order to deal with what has occurred. It is considered perfectly natural for a person to deny a traumatizing event. For most people, this is normally temporary, but for others they could remain in this stage for longer periods. The person would opt to ignore and not deal with the trauma instead of facing the reality. In regards to death, it is not possible to evade or avoid it indefinitely. There will come a time when the person would be forced to accept that they have lost their partner or close relative. A person who loses his/her spouse accidentally, they would find it hard to accept that the spouse is dead, and he/she is no longer with him/her. The spouse who has been bereaved will opt to deny initially, and they would prefer to remain in their preferable reality. Denial would offer the spouse solace, and they could avoid dealing with the reality.

Anger will manifest itself in various ways. A person could be angry with themself, with others, or with the world (Kubler-Ross, 2011). Understanding what a person is going through would assist the other person to remain nonjudgmental and detached. A spouse losing their partner would be angry with the person who caused the accident if it was human error. Otherwise, they might demonstrate anger towards the people who were with his/her spouse when the accident occurred. Expressing anger is a nice way of dealing with the loss one is experiencing. Once the person comes to the realization that they cannot deny the loss anymore, they would naturally become angry. For the spouse, they would keep asking him/herself why me? How can this happen? Why have you left me?

The bargaining stage involves the bereaved person attempting to bargain with the universe. The person would be making attempts to negotiate in order to avoid grief. The negotiation is for an extended life mostly with a higher power. Bargaining does not offer any sustainable solution especially when it comes to death. A spouse who lost their partner would try to negotiate with a higher power in order to have him/her back. The negotiation would not be possible, but the spouse would make attempts anyway. The depression stage is also known as the preparatory grieving. This is the dress rehearsal of the aftermath of the loss. This stage might have different meanings for different people. Normally it is an acceptance stage has some emotional attachment. When a person starts to experience regret, sadness, uncertainty, or fear, they have begun to embrace and accept the reality of the loss. The spouse might experience any of the emotions mentioned, and this would demonstrate that the is beginning to come into terms with the loss/death.

The last stage is acceptance, and this stage would vary depending on the person experiencing the loss. This stage demonstrates that the individual has begun having some emotional objectivity and detachment. This detachment is necessary for the person to embrace the loss. The spouse would undergo mixed feelings, but they would take a while to fully detach emotionally.