Rise of Ngo Dihn Diem

¶ … Rise of Ngo Dihn Diem

The history of Vietnam is full of number of different individuals, from across the political spectrum. One such example is Ngo Dinh Diem, he was known as a staunch anti-communist and the first President of South Vietnam. His rise would take place from humble beginnings, which were often hidden by lies and half truths. Yet, in spite of this fact, Diem's rise to power would play a role in shaping how the course of the Vietnam War would unfold. As he would serve as a bridge, that would link Vietnam directly with its colonial past; while his inevitable demise would signal a major shift in American policy in Vietnam. To fully understand the overall role that Diem played in this complex and twisted relationship; requires you to examine the rise and fall Ngo Dinh Diem. This will highlight the overall challenges faced by the Untied States during the early stages of its involvement in Vietnam War. It is through understanding this relationship between the two; that will help you to understand how the rise and fall Diem would serve as an indicator of U.S. policy in Vietnam.

The Formation of an Anti-Communist

Ngo Dinh Diem was born in Hue on January 3, 1901. At an early age he would be influenced by both religion and civil service. As his father would originally attempt to become a priest and then would abandon these plans, to become an advisor the French Colonial Emperor. Deeply religious, the family would attend Catholic services regularly. This would have a profound impact on Diem, as his father would resign from civil service and become a farmer. At the age of fifteen he would work with the family in various rice patty fields. Then, a few months later Diem would go to live with his brother (Ngo Dinh Thuc), with the intention of becoming a priest. After, realizing that the discipline and regiment of study were more than he wanted to endure, Diem would move to Hanoi. This is where he would attend the School of Public Administration and Law. During the course of his studies, he began to become interested in various aspects of civil service. At which point, he would seek out a position working with in the French colonial government. Where, Diem first served at the Royal Library in Hue. Within one year, his work ethic and leadership would help him to become the District Chief (which was responsible for 27 villages). As time went by, he would make connections within the government, which would allow him to see rapid promotions over the next several years. The French viewed Diem as a hard worker; however, they did not like his fiery rhetoric of an independent Vietnam. Frustrated he thought of resigning his position to become a priest, but quickly changed his mind. As Diem continued to provide assistance to the French, the most notable would include the fact that he help round up communist agitators in 1929.

For his loyalty, he would be promoted to Governor of Thiet Province. This is significant for the Diem, because it would continue to shape his anti-communist views as the Governor. As peasant revolts, organized by the communists would be suppressed under his rule. After the revolts were successfully suppressed, Diem would be promoted to Interior Minister, by the French. However, his views of an independent Vietnam would continue to influence him; as he continued to call for an independent state. This angered the French, who forced him to resign, stripped him of all power / influence and threatened to throw him in jail.

What this shows, is that Diem was influenced by his Catholic beliefs and the ideas of civil service. These two areas would shape who he would become, as his faith would push him to seek out a career in civil service. Yet, his desire for independence and his staunch anti-communist beliefs would be shaped during this time. As the various insurrections and unrest would only make him more opposed to ideology. This was fueled by his religious beliefs and the influence he received as a civil servant. Together these different elements would allow Diem to be seen as someone they could trust. However, his rogue nature is what would spell the inevitable demise of him as a civil servant during the 1930's.

World War II and Independence

During World War II Diem, would remain a private citizen that would focus on his hobbies of: gardening, hunting, meditating, reading, going to church and photography. He supported the Japanese invasion of Vietnam, hoping and encouraging them to declare Vietnam an independent country. However, these suggestions were largely ignored by various Japanese officials. After the French realized what was happening, they immediately order the arrest of Diem. At which point, he fled to Saigon to serve in the Japanese leaning government. After, the Japanese withdrew, Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnam an independent republic. Captured by Ho Chi Minh's forces, he was exiled and offered a position in the Minh government. After refusing, because they were communist leaning, he was released. Irritated by what took place, Ho Chi Minh ordered his arrest; however, as the fighting intensified between the French and the Ho Chi Minh. This caused the arrest of Diem to be put on hold, as the different resources were diverted to fighting the French. During this time he would establish an anti-communist political party, the Vietnam National Alliance. Their platform was for France to grant Vietnam its independence through a loosely-based confederation. As Diem, would often claim that he was third choice for the people between colonialism and communism. This angered Ho Chi Minh, who tried and sentenced him to death. The French were so upset by his comments and the establishment of the political party, that they said they would not protect him against Ho Chi Minh. After having a close call on his life, he would leave the country.

During this time he would travel throughout Europe and the United States, going on speaking tours encouraging the development of an independent South Vietnam. As he would often claim, that the free world can save the Vietnamese people from having to choose between colonialism and communism. During the outbreak of the Korean War he met with Douglas McArthur and tried to secure American support for his position. However, with the Korean War heating up McArthur declined. Diem would then travel to New York and Washington, where he would attempt to lobby the Eisenhower administration to support his ideas. Then, after the French were defeated at Dien Bien Phu in 1954, a conference was called in Geneva to settle the issue of Vietnam. While not at the conference, the various meetings with the Eisenhower administration would have a major impact in deterring the future of Vietnam, as they lobbied to have him named as the Prime Minister. Under the different accords that were negotiated, Deim would be named as Prime Minister that would run the anti-communist South, while the North would be run by Ho Chi Minh. The two countries would remain divided along the 17th parallel, until free elections can take place, to unite the country under one government. Diem would arrive in the country on June 26, 1955; to only a crowd of a few hundred supporters.

After arriving in South Vietnam, the French forces had withdrawn and referendum was held on October 23, 1955 (to determine the direction of South Vietnam). The two main candidates were Diem and the Emperor of Vietnam, with Diem advocating a republican form of government and the Emperor supporting a return of the monarchy. Since Diem, was firmly in control of power he was able to ban the Emperor from the election and had control of all polling stations throughout the country. This caused, Diem to win 98.2% of the vote, including: 605,025 votes in Saigon (where a total of 455,000 were registered). On October 26th Diem declared himself the winner and the President, forming the Republic of Vietnam. One of the first actions that Diem engaged in was: to cancel the reunification elections in 1956. With him saying that because the South Vietnamese delegation did not sign the document, they are not going to follow it. After facing fierce criticisms from the United States for such actions, Diem agreed to hold elections for a national assembly in 1959. However, like the election in 1955, this one would be full of fraud. As the government, would prevent the opposition candidates from being published in the newspaper. In many rural regions, those who supported opposition candidates were accused of collaborating with the Vietcong (which was punishable by death).

In spite of such challenges, the major opposition candidate Phan Quan Dan was allowed to run. Despite winning a nearly 6 to 1 majority at the polling stations, Diem had Dan arrested. As he was deploying 8,000 plain clothed troops throughout the country.

What all of this shows, is that Diem used his political influence to achieve his own personal objectives. Where, he would portray himself as a staunch anti-communist that supported the ideas of liberty. Yet, when he had taken control of the country he immediately began to rule with an iron fist. This authoritarian rule and the way that Diem was able to single-handedly throw elections, would set the tone as to what kind of President he would be. Then, when you combine this with the fact that just 10% of the country was Catholic; and that the Catholics held a position of privilege in the country. Meant that the actions by Diem; would be seen as even more illegitimate by the people. This is especially troubling when the French had raised concerns about a rising Buddhist threat, as 70% of the population was Buddhist. These two elements allowed for the overall actions against the Diem government to increase during his reign as President. Where, both the North and the people of the South became frustrated with Diem.

The Presidency of Ngo Dinh Diem

Diem was often hailed throughout much of the Western world as a staunch anti-communist, who supported the basic ideas of democracy. Yet, beneath the surface, it is obvious that his government was nothing more than a brutal dictatorship, which was fascist leaning. His most trusted confidant was his brother, Ngo Dihn Nhu. He was known for being an admirer of Adolph Hitler and was addicted to opium. Diem, then put a second younger brother, Ngo Dinh Can, in charge of the city of Hue. A third brother, Ngo Dinh Luyen, was appointed ambassador to Great Britain. While, Ngo Dinh Thuc (his older brother) was appointed archbishop of Hue. Together, the nepotism shown by Diem and his anti-communist stance would be the main drivers of policy for the South Vietnamese government. As Diem, would create numerous institutions that would support his control of power. An example of this occurred, with the establishment of the secret police and the creation of private armies. Where, his brother Nhu, modeled both organizations after the SS of Nazi Germany by: mirroring the tactics, methods and the way they marched. While Nhu never held an official position, he was considered to be an unofficial advisor to Diem. However, the way the government was established and the large amounts of nepotism would lead to large amounts of corruption.

As various South Vietnamese government officials and Diem's own relatives, would engage in numerous activities for their own benefit. The most notable would include: the trafficking of opium, the smuggling of rice into North Vietnam, nationalizing the countries cinnamon industry and the seizing funds of foreign investors as well as wealthy Vietnamese who did not support him. This would then be augmented with a twisted tax system that would benefit Deim and his family. The way that it worked was the government would compete for U.S. rice contracts; while at the same time seeking out "donations" from various business people, church officials and wealthy Vietnamese. Those who paid these donations received a portion of the U.S. rice contracts and favorable treatment from Vietnamese officials.

The people who refused to pay these donations were often subject to violence, arrest and possibly death. To help achieve this objective, Diem would use the secret police and the South Vietnamese army. Where, they would work to conduct a number of lucrative and illegal enterprises for Diem. The intelligence service would provide Diem with information about political opponents, which he would use to exert power and influence over them. He would also use the various resources of the South Vietnamese Army; to work on a number of different personal projects for himself and various family members. Together, these different elements would create a system that would turn Diem in a multi-millionaire, within a few short years.

Diem was never married, in the 1920's he was rejected in a romantic relationship and never sought out the company of a woman again.

To keep up appearances, he had his brother's wife, Madam Nhu, appointed as first lady. Her objective was to impose strict Catholic values on South Vietnamese society. Where, she would close down brothels, opium dens, made abortion / divorce illegal and created strict laws for adultery. These policies were then enforced by: the secret police and army; who would attack different organized crime gangs that were engaging in such activities. After being able to successfully destroy the longest organized crime syndicate, the Binh Xuyen (which ran brothels for centuries under colonialism); Diem, focused his attention on destroying all of the different private armies that existed throughout South Vietnam. This was accomplished using a two tear approach of extortion and terror. Where, the government would tell the different entities to disband. Those organizations that refused to do so; were arrest by the secret police or the South Vietnamese Army, for being collaborators with the Viet Cong or the communists. This created a situation where torture became common, as the death toll of these various activities was placed at around 50,000 to 75,000 people. The reign of terror of government would not stop at these groups.

Instead, it would morph into a hit squad that would go after anyone who was viewed to pose a threat to Diem's power including: anti-corruption whistleblowers and anti-communist allies, who were accused of collaboration with the communists.

What all of this shows; is that Diem was working under the illusion that he is supporting various democratic and anti-communist efforts in Vietnam. However, underneath the surface he was nothing more than brutal dictator, who was a fascist and would use the government resources for his own personal gain. Together, these different elements would delegitimize the South Vietnamese government, as the various institutions created would oppose what Diem claimed he publically stood for. This was problematic for the West and the United States; because he was viewed as someone they could work with. Yet, the only reason he was able to hold remain in power was because of his anti-communist stance that he took and the ties that he formed with the West, during his years in exile. Then, when you combine this with the overall brutality and the unpopular way of life, meant that it would only be a matter of time until Diem's policies would lead to civil unrest and coups.

The corruption, brutally, imposing of religion upon the people and the ability to hold onto power at all cost helped fuel anti-government activity in the South. This started out slowly, as a low level insurgency in 1957. However, as the secret police and army were targeting communist officials led the creation of the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF). This was a political party started by the North Vietnamese, with the intention of: building support to over throw of the South Vietnamese government. To counter this action Diem, would order the consolidation of 14,000 villages into 11,000.

These were to be called hamlets, with the promise of providing citizens with their own homes and a watch tower for protection. The reason why such a policy was implemented was because of the increasing threat taking place in the rural parts of the country. As the North, would go into various rural villages, where they were able to receive large amounts of support. The idea of the Diem government was: to isolate the NLF by not giving them access to key villages in the South (where they were able to find support). What made NLF so popular was not the fact that they were communist, instead, they appealed to nationalist ideals of ordinary people. This is significant because, it allowed the NLF to find a broad range of support in rural villages and among the opposition. As those people who are opposed to communism; would band together against the unpopular Diem government.

Then when you combine this with the fact that Diem perused pro-Catholic policies; meant that 70% of the country would feel alienated, as they were Buddhist. The reason why this angered so many is: a sense of entitlement was created for anyone who was Catholic. As the only way: to serve in government, to be an officer in the military or have any kind of economic opportunity; meant that you must be Catholic. Then, when you combine this with the fact, that Diem would distribute weapons to fellow Catholics in the rural villages. So that they could defend themselves against the Viet Cong (while ignoring Buddhists); created disenfranchisement in the country that would only add to the overall amounts of unrest

As a result, this would only stoke the fuels of discontent among Buddhists. Where, Buddhists monks would attempt to hold on to their religious traditions. However, any display of their symbols or flags in public was banned. While Catholics were able to celebrate and fly whatever flags they wanted in public. This created a situation where the different monks would protest an obvious unfair policy against them. When they attempted to voice their concerns, the secret police and the army would respond with brutality, killing many protestors. At which point, Deim would ban all protest by Buddhists in public. This would only fuel the overall amounts of violence, with it becoming more extreme. An example of this occurred when a Buddhist monk burned himself in protest on a Saigon street. He wanted to point out the unfair policies of the Diem government, towards the majority of South Vietnamese.

The division that Diem created within Vietnam would lead to a total of three different coups against him. What was happening is the government policy in the military of giving favoritism to Catholic officers created a sense of anger towards the government. As qualified officers, were kept out of key positions because they were Buddhist. Then, when you combine this with the fact that many Buddhists would convert to Catholic for political / economic reasons, only made the government more unstable. At which point, the first coup took place in 1960 and then in 1962. Because the two previous coups had failed and Diem continued to hold onto power; meant that he would believe that he was invincible. This was problematic for the United States, who wanted to support a free and independent Vietnam. Yet, below the surface the White House was secretly supporting efforts to remove Diem from power. A good example of this can be seen by looking no further than a CIA memo sent to President Kennedy on July 9, 1963 detailing an imminent coup against Diem. With the memo saying, "South Vietnam continues to restive over unresolved Buddhist issue and coup attempt is highly likely. South Vietnam's Army Commander Major General Tran Von Don told a CIA officer on July 8 that there were plans by the military to overthrow President Diem. The military is key to any successful move to oust the government, and Don is a respected officer. That makes this report the most substantial of a recent series of reported coups."