Use of GIS Client / Server Systems by U.S. Government Agencies

GIS Client/Server Systems

Geographic Information System (GIS): Overview

Use of GIS Client/Server Systems by U.S. Government Agencies

Department of Agriculture (USDA)

Census Bureau

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Department of the Interior

Fish and Wildlife Service

Federal Emergency Management Authority

Department of Homeland Security (DHS)

Successful Deployment of GIS Technologies in Facilities Management and Transportation

Real Life Application of GIS in Recent Times

Application in other Jurisdictions

The Future of GIS: Opportunities for Application

An Examination of the Use of GIS (Geographic Information Systems) Client/Server Systems by U.S. Government Agencies

Introduction

Recent years have seen thousands of business organizations embrace GIS client/server systems in an attempt to improve processes and enhance efficiency. It should, however, be noted that government agencies are also increasingly implementing GIS client/server systems -- particularly in the analysis of complex situations and enhancement of coordination. This case study examines the use of GIS client/server systems by U.S. Government Agencies. In so doing, the case study will be seeking to establish whether or not GIS technologies help U.S. government agencies deliver accountability and transparency, enhance coordination, bring down costs, and increase efficiency.

Geographic Information System (GIS): Overview

A Geographical Information System (GIS), according to Folger (2010, p. 2) "is a computer system capable of capturing, storing, analyzing, and displaying geographically referenced information -- information attached to a location, such as latitude and longitude, or street location." Client-server systems, on the other hand, "divide the processing tasks between the user's own local machine, the client, and a remote and probably more powerful machine known as the server" (Anselin and Rey, 2009, p. 53). In instances where most of the processing is server-based, the client becomes a mere "dumb terminal" (Anselin and Rey, 2009, p. 53). As the authors further point out, this is an arrangement that most federal government agencies often favor.

It is important to note that on paper, most GIS functions can be offered as client-server configurations. However, in practice, as Anselin and Rey (2009) note, the number of GIS applications availed as either public or commercial services are limited.

Historical Perspectives

In the words of Reddick (2010, p. 450), "the use of GIS by government agencies has grown exponentially since the 1980s across the world." However, as the author further points out, it was not until the 1990s that GIS was fully embraced in the U.S. Essentially, the connotations GIS had in 1992 is different from that which it has today. As Anselin and Rey (2009) point out, thanks to new technologies, some significant changes including, but not limited to, marked growth in several application areas and new technologies have brought about numerous changes in the field. To put this into perspective, it is important to note that "in 1992, GIS connoted a single, monolithic software package running on a stand-alone workstation or perhaps a local-area network, and analogous to Microsoft Word or Excel" (Anselin and Rey, 2009, p. 52). At the time, the key purpose of GIS was to make things easier for the user, i.e. By eliminating tasks that were either time-consuming, repetitive, tedious, or prone to error if performed by hand. According to Maling (as cited in Anselin and Rey, 2009), such tasks as map and map data analysis were not only too complex but also repetitive and too tedious. In that regard, therefore, any technology that made analysis effortless and more accurate was desirable. Some of the packages vendors offered, as of 1992, included, but they were not limited to, "Intergraph, MapInfo, ESRI, Wild, Caliper, and Tydac" (Anselin and Rey, 2009, p. 52). At this time, most of the packages were largely differentiated, with some targeting universities, others government institutions and agencies, and yet others corporate entities. There were also cheaper packages targeted at individual and non-corporate users.

Thanks to a number of factors, within the last one and a half decades, some significant changes with regard to GIS technologies have been observed. To begin with, with maps being regarded the primarily source of input, early GIA applications were largely dependent on maps -- and hence areas covered extensively by maps, i.e. forestry and resource management. Later on, it was discovered that there was much to "be gained by adding geographic references to the records contained in the otherwise non-spatial but massive databases of" various entities (Anselin and Rey, 2009, p. 52). It was on the basis of this discovery that a number of database vendors took it upon themselves to develop extensions that could not only support simple queries (such as queries involving the location of facilities), but also handle records that were spatially enabled.

The emergence of internet as a dominant network, as well as the emergence of the World Wide Web (WWW) as an effective application also contributed towards the changing perspectives on GIS. In addition to opening unlimited digital geographic data sharing potential, the internet facilitated seamless supply of data on which GIS is heavily dependent on (Anselin and Rey, 2009).

It is clear from the discussion above that today's geospatial landscape is far more advanced than that of the early 90s. Indeed, in the words of Anselin and Rey (2009, p. 54), "the geospatial world of today is clearly a much broader domain of data, tools, services, and concepts than the limited GIS world of 1992."

Application: Use of GIS Client/Server Systems by U.S. Government Agencies

According to ESRI (2014), federal "agencies use GIS to enrich operations, meet missions, and communicate with the public." Some of the government agencies that have successfully made use of GIS client/server systems include, but they are not limited to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the U.S. Census Bureau, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the U.S. Department of the Interior, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, and the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Authority. It would be prudent to highlight these success stories and their utilization of GIS client/server systems.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)

In an attempt to further enhance image delivery to its members of staff in various field offices, USDA Forest Service, as ESRI (2014) points out, "implemented ArcGIS Image service, which delivers imagery to the regional, forest, and field offices in seconds." This made it possible for the agency to easily and effortlessly serve a lot of imagery, thus effectively doing away with the need to download large files to computers. Next, we have the USDA's Natural Resources Conservation Service, which according to ESRI (2014) avails soil maps and any related data via the National Cooperative Soil Survey. The Natural Resources Conservation Service as the author further points out launched what is referred to as Web Soil Survey - a platform that makes it possible for online users to gain access to not only the survey database but also maps, in what helps eliminate unnecessary paperwork and avails government services to more people. It is important to note that prior to the implementation of the Web Soil Survey, maps of soil surveys and associated data were only available in hard copy versions. Today, thanks to the Web Soil Survey, users only need reliable access to the internet to access the survey database, identify any parcel of land in the country, and conduct soil interpretations. The application, according to ESRI (2014) "uses ArcGIS Server and ArclMS to perform navigation functions, display and manage user-defined areas of interest, and generate maps." This utilization of GIS technologies by USDA and its various arms remains one of the clearest indicators yet of how U.S. government agencies are making use of GIS client/server systems to improve coordination and further increase efficiency.

The U.S. Census Bureau

According to ESRI (2014), the American FactFinder Web site, which is powered by the U.S. Census Bureau, avails to members of the public up-to-date geographic, economic, and demographic data. The site's reference maps, thematic maps, as well as geographic address searching capabilities were, as ESRI (2014) observes "developed using ArclMS and ArcSDE technology" - with the former coming handy in the provision of "the interactive mapping capabilities used to search for and visualize data with spatial components through Web browsers," and the latter being "used for retrieval and management of all spatial data." It should also be noted that as the author further points out, the program used in the automation of field data collection is designed to make it easier for enumerators working for the U.S. Census Bureau to not only follow up, but also collect survey data from households that fail to give back their census forms (ESRI 2014). The said enumerators, in this case, are equipped with mobile devices that are GPS-enabled (ESRI 2014). This is yet another example of active utilization of GIS client/server systems by a U.S. Government Agency in the improvement of coordination and efficiency.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

This particular agency concerns itself with the protection of both the environment and human health. In seeking to execute its mandate, the agency makes use of a GIS tool known as the drinking water mapping application. This particular tool provides the agency's officers, including managers and technical staff, "with a readily accessible tool to run queries and reports and generate maps vital to the efficient management of drinking water programs under the Safe Drinking Water Act" (ESRI, 2014). As the author further points out, in addition to accessing high-resolution imagery, employees of the agency can also integrate the said imagery "within all ArcGIS Desktop products as well as via the EPA's EnviroMapper and ArclMS Web viewers" (ESRI 2014). This way, real-time solutions are created for an otherwise complex process.

The U.S. Department of the Interior

Developed by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management (a U.S. Department of Labor department) in collaboration with several other agencies (such as the U.S. Forest Service), the National Integrated Land System (NILS) facilitates the sharing of mineral and land record information both within the government as well as within the private sector. According to ESRI (2014), NILS' publication site, otherwise known as GeoCommunicator, "provides searching, accessing, and dynamic mapping of data from federal surface management boundaries, mining claims, land- and mineral-use records, and Public Land Survey System data." Embracing best practices in Geographic Information Systems has in this case enabled the U.S. Bureau of Land Management to develop business-driven, sustainable solutions.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Next, we have the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, which according to Cramer (2009, p. 25), "maintains a GIS Wetlands Geo-database." As ESRI (2014) points out, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service makes use of GIS technology to further enhance its ability to report accurately on the economic impact of endangered plant species sites or areas. Specifically, researchers working for this particular agency combine data types from a variety of sources and then utilize "ArcGIS Desktop software to layer proposed critical habitats and define landownership and current and planned land use within and adjacent to the designation" (ESRI 2014). This is yet another example of GIS technology being used in the development of sustainable solutions to seemingly complex problems.

The U.S. Federal Emergency Management Authority

According to ESRI (2014), the federal government, through its various agencies, also actively makes use of GIS in data gathering, in which case it routinely combines "on-the-ground collection activities with remotely sensed imagery and information to provide decision makers and the public with timely reports and maps that help them prepare for and recover from natural disasters and economic changes."

The U.S. Federal Emergency Management Authority (FEMA) is one of the U.S. government agencies that utilize a GIS database to facilitate its operations. Mandated with the management of the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP), FEMA is, from time to time, expected to update the digital flood insurance rate maps of the National Flood Insurance Program which, as ESRI (2014) further points out, indicate likely flood hazard risks for communities across the country. To be able to accomplish this in a more efficient and sustainable manner, FEMA came up with a half-decade modernization plan for the flood map. It is important to note that given that "flood hazard conditions are dynamic and data must be continually updated, FEMA manages the data for the maps with a GIS database that makes the information available via the web" (ESRI 2014). In this case, it is not difficult to see why as far as the delivery of services is concerned, GIS tools come in handy in the implementation of programs meant to benefit those who need them most.

U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS)

The U.S. Department of Homeland Security is yet another good example of a federal government agency that actively makes use of GIS to coordinate some of its operations and, hence, fulfill its mandate. One of the GIS applications the agency makes use of is the Integrated Common Analytical Viewer (iCAV) which is, in basic terms, "a secure, web-based, geospatial visualization suite of tools that integrates commercial and government-owned data and imagery from multiple sources" (Beveridge, 2011, p. 275). According to the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (as cited in Beveridge, 2011), iCAV is not only modeled to geospatially map, but to also image, evaluate, sort, and analyze the key resources and critical infrastructure of the nation. Thanks to this innovative ArcGIS Server-built custom web application, those responsible for decision making at various levels have, at their disposal, "the tools they need for coordinated preparedness, response, and recovery in cases of suspicious activity, threats, hurricanes, or other major event" (ESRI, 2014). It is important to note that in this case, decision makers are, at various locations, provided with up-to-date wall map displays that clearly capture activities deemed to be suspicious at key infrastructural points (such as nuclear facilities, power plants, and chemical plants). Thanks to GIS, systems that were formally disparate are now united -- thus enabling them to provide "a common and complete picture for 180,000 staff and 500,000 contractors" (ESRI, 2014).

Already, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security is in the process of replacing iCAV with a new, enhanced, and more innovative visualization program referred to as OneView. On its website, the agency notes this new visualization program "will replace iCAV as the primary visualization capability for Geospatial Information Infrastructure (GII)" (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2014). However, as the agency further notes, to ensure that the transition to the new platform is seamless, users will not be denied access to iCAV until after the passage of some time. With this truly remarkable system, users will be able to view maps with richer interface and gain access to more enhanced "imagery, geocoding, and routing features" (U.S. Department of Homeland Security). Such advancements shouldn't be allowed to pass unnoticed. This is particularly the case given that in the modern day and age, the main challenge being faced by agencies such as the U.S. Department of Homeland Security isn't really unavailability of data but rather, the meaningful utilization of the data collected. Using location as a common feature enables such agencies to make informed decisions.

Successful Deployment of GIS Technologies in Facilities Management and Transportation

As far as facilities management is concerned, ESRI (2014) rightfully points out that federal agencies own and/or control numerous facilities across the country. In that regard, therefore, effective management of the said facilities is of the essence. On this front, it is important to note that the U.S. Internal Revenue Service (IRS) has over time opened quite a number of taxpayer assistance centers countrywide. These centers are meant to help tax payers with issues to do with the filling of taxes. According to ESRI (2014), "to manage its facilities, the IRS developed the GIS-based post of Duty Model application that enables the agency to analyze current office locations and evaluate proposed sites." Yet another government agency that is actively making use of GIS technologies in the management of its facilities is the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Spanning approximately 400 acres, Langley Research Center (LaRC) is deemed the largest center NASA owns. This particular infrastructure, as ESRI (2014) points out, "is managed with a state-of-the-art GIS, which enables planners to address issues such as master planning, space utilization, utility maintenance, and cost estimates."