War Broke Out in 1756

¶ … war broke out in 1756 between France and Great Britain. Along with that, difference between American and Canadian colonists had erupted two years before that began, which cased the war to lead to the fall of New France. From there, the conflict forced Great Britain against France. This was supported by Austria, Sweden, Saxony, Russia and Spain. In America and Asia, British colonies approached French colonies. New France and New England fought over possession of the continent and dictatorship of the fur trade. Even though the conflicts were separate, the two colonies were directly connected to the victories or defeats of the Motherland (the seven-year war).

Summary of Conflict

Even though the war began in 1756 in Europe, conflict started two years earlier in 1754, in North America when George Washington was ambush trapped in the Ohio Valley. From that, both Motherlands dispatched troops were not in equal numbers (the seven-year war).

"For France, the war in Europe was the top priority, so the country sent just a few troops. It also considered it was more important to protect its colonies in the West Indies, since sugar cane was more lucrative than the fur trade in New France. But Great Britain was determined to destroy France's colonial empire, and it sent more than 20,000 soldiers to America. It must also be noted that American colonists were unable to defend themselves against their Canadian counterparts, who excelled in the art of the guerilla warfare. For New England, it was imperative to obliterate New France and its Native allies, which were preventing the States from acquiring and occupying new land (New England had a very large population and sought new land to occupy and farm.) Although New France did well in the war until 1757, the tide proceeded to turn - in favour of the British troops, who won several victories right up until the battle on the Plains of Abraham in 1759, when James Wolfe defeated the army of Montcalm" (the seven-year war).

Within the next year, Vaudreuil was forced to surrender in Montreal, which meant things were far from over. Due to the fact that the final result depended on whether or not France was victorious, in the end, France was defeated on all fronts. In an attempt to redeem the colonies which brought in the most money, France conceded New France in a Treaty signed in 1763 in exchange for keeping the West Indies, which angered the Native allies, who were the Canadians' allies. Due to this, some of them regrouped under the leadership of Pontiac and attempted to continue the war (the seven-year war).

"On learning of these movements the French ordered 6 battalions under Baron Armand Dieskau to be sent to reinforce LOUISBOURG and Canada. Vice-Admiral Edward Boscawen was then ordered to sail with his squadron to intercept and capture the French convoy, although war had not been declared. He captured only 2 ships. The British had even less success on land. The army advancing on Lake Champlain was stopped by the French near Lake George but Dieskau was wounded and taken prisoner. The proposed assault on Niagara collapsed through military ineptitude, and Braddock's 1500-man army was destroyed by a small detachment of French and Indians. Only in ACADIA did the British enjoy success. Fort Beausejour with its small garrison was captured. The Acadian settlers were subsequently rounded up by the New England forces and deported" (the Canadian Encyclopedia).

Within April 1756, there were more French troops and a new commander, which included the marquis de MONTCALM, arrived in Canada, and the next month Britain declared war. The strategy of marquis de MONTCALM was to keep the British on the defensive and as far from Canadian settlements as possible. From there, he captured the British forts at Oswego on Lake Ontario and gained control of the Great Lakes. On the other hand, Canadian and Indian war parties ravaged the American frontier settlements which the Americans could not cope with these attacks. However, Britain was forced to send over twenty-three thousand troops to commit most of its navy to blockading the French ports. The French aim was to tie down these large British forces with a small army. From there, the Canadians and Indian allies spared more valuable colonies from attack (the Canadian Encyclopedia).

"In 1759, 2 British armies advanced on Canada while a third captured Niagara. The Royal Navy brought Major-General James WOLFE with 9000 men to Quebec and General Jeffery AMHERST advanced up Lake Champlain only to halt at Crown Point. After maneuvering fruitlessly all summer Wolfe induced Montcalm to give battle on September 13 outside Quebec, and inflicted a shattering defeat in the Battle of the PLAINS of ABRAHAM. The city surrendered a few days later. The chevalier de LEVIS took over command of the French army and the following April soundly defeated the British on the same battlefield (see Battle of STE-FOY). On May 16 he had to raise the siege of the city when British frigates arrived to dash all hope of French reinforcements. Retiring to Montreal, the French army was forced to capitulate to Amherst on 8 September 1760 (see CONQUEST), freeing the British forces for service elsewhere. In 1762 Martinique was taken and only the intervention of Spain that year saved the other French islands in the West Indies" (the Canadian Encyclopedia).

In Quebec, the garrison had their attention by the Levis batteries. From there, the bulk of the French army still had to remain in these entrenchments. This was due to the fact they covered the only open ground near Quebec and the movements of the fleet in the basin looked as if designed for a renewed attack on them. On the 12th,Saunders distinctly threatened a possible landing by laying in-shore buoys and firing as if to draw the enemy. He also did this by sending all his boats, manned and armed to manoeuvre for the supposed spot at midnight (the Battle of the Plains of Abraham).

Reasons for the seven years war

Britain did actually try to stop the war from happening and to isolate France diplomatically.

"King George II of Britain was Elector of Hanover in northwestern Germany. If France occupied Hanover, Britain would be forced to exchange any colonial conquests to regain it. Further, Britain's safety from invasion relied on friendly or neutral occupation of the North Sea ports. Britain had a defensive alliance with the Netherlands and Austria for the protection of the Austrian Netherlands, now Belgium. Because Britain had planned to commit its troops to colonial conquest, they refused to help defend the Barrier Forts protecting the area, which weakened their ties to their two former allies. Britain's interception of the Canada convoy, and not French expansion in North America was interpreted as aggression by the European powers. Since the alliance with Holland and Austria was doomed, Britain approached Russia for assistance against potential attacks on Hanover from the French or France's ally from the last war, Prussia. Austria interfered with these efforts by exploiting Czarina Elizabeth's hatred of the Prussian king Frederick. Frederick was in desperate need of an ally and successfully made an alliance with Britain for the protection of Hanover" (Part of John's Military History Page).

The illustrations and maps that support the text are also quite good. The only troubling aspect of this volume is the author's not-too subtle bias against the participation of American colonials in the war. Although Marston was born in the United States, his attitudes reflect the contempt that arrogant British officials held toward the colonies in circa 1770. This bias is demonstrated in consistently inaccurate descriptions of battles in which colonials were engaged. In the Battle of Ticonderoga in 1758, the author states that, "the provincials attacked in the first wave and were easily repulsed. Abercromby then committed his regular troops." This description is false, because the provincial units pushed in the French pickets but were not "easily repulsed." Nor did Abercromby commit his regulars, because they attacked without orders and he lost control of the battle. The author's contention about the Black Watch's attack, that "after an hour of hard hand-to-hand fighting, the attack was called off," is also misleading. Only a few Highlanders made it to the French entrenchments and the attack failed because the unit was virtually destroyed. A similar example occurs during the Forbes expedition, when the author states that "on 14 September the British suffered a setback when the French garrison attacked their position, causing their provincial units to disperse (Marston).

Recent decades have seen a number of excellent scholarly studies of the war, most of which have focused on the "French and Indian War" campaigns in North America. Comprehensive studies of the entire conflict are relatively few, however, and most date from the early twentieth century. In the French Navy and the Seven Years' War, the historian Jonathan R. Dull goes for the big picture, picking a high vantage point and giving his readers a remarkably detailed look at the political, diplomatic, military, and naval events of the war (Doll).

The Seven Years War saw Britain established as the greatest colonial power, with control over India and North America seemingly secured, while Prussia emerged as the greatest power on the Continent, and the dominant force inside Germany, reducing still further the power of the Holy Roman Empire and Habsburg Austria. Frederick II of Prussia (the Great) emerges as the most remarkable leader of the war. Prussia was the smallest of the main combatants, and yet Frederick survived year after year of campaigning, and despite coming near to defeat he emerged triumphant (Richard).

Histories of the American Revolution tend to start in 1763, the end of the Seven-Year's War, a worldwide struggle for empire that pitted France against England in North America, Europe, and Asia. Fred Anderson, who teaches history at the University of Colorado, takes the story back a decade and explains the significance of the conflict in American history. Demonstrating that independence was not inevitable or even at first desired by the colonists, he shows how removal of the threat from France was essential before Americans could develop their own concepts of democratic government and defy their imperial British protectors. Of great interest is the importance of Native Americans in the conflict. Both the French and English had Indian allies; France's defeat ended a diplomatic system in which Indian nations, especially the 300-year-old Iroquois League, held the balance between the colonial powers. In a fast-paced narrative, Anderson moves with confidence and ease from the forests of Ohio and battlefields along the St. Lawrence to London's House of Commons and the palaces of Europe. He makes complex economic, social, and diplomatic patterns accessible and easy to understand. Using a vast body of research, he takes the time to paint the players as living personalities, from George III and George Washington to a host of supporting characters. The book's usefulness and clarity are enhanced by a hundred landscapes, portraits, maps, and charts taken from contemporary sources. Crucible of War is political and military history at its best; it never flags and is a pleasure to read. --John Stevenson --This text refers to an out of print or unavailable edition of this title.

From 1756 to 1763, the Ohio Valley was the site of a historic contest between the French and the English, both of whom wanted to add this fertile soil to their colonial holdings. In this elegant new account of the Seven Years' War, University of Colorado historian Anderson demonstrates that the conflict was more than just a peripheral squabble that anticipated the American Revolution. Not only did the war decisively alter relations among the French, the English and the Native American allies of the two powers, who for decades had played the English and French off one another to their own advantage, but just as critical, argues Anderson, the war also changed the character of British imperialism, with the mother country trying to reshape the terms of empire and the colonists' place in it. (it was the British victory of 1763, for example, that led the British to post a permanent, peacetime army in America and to support those troops with new taxes.) Indeed, Anderson shows that familiar events of the mid-1760s, like the Stamp Act and Tea Act crises, are better understood as postwar rather than prewar events: they did not "reflect a movement toward revolution so much as an effort to define the imperial relationship." This volume, then, will be of interest not just to Seven Years' War buffs, but also to those interested in the entire Revolutionary era. Anderson's magisterial study -- like his earlier book, a People's Army -- is essential reading on an often ignored war (Anderson).

William Pitt proved an excellent manager of the war, subsidizing Prussia and minimizing Continental troop commitments while protecting Hanover mostly with troops from the German states. For 1758, British troops were sent on diversionary attacks on the French coast, at St. Malo (see map) and Cherbourg, which were thought by Pitt and Frederick to divert troops away from Germany. An expedition to western Africa captured the French slaving station at Senegal. In North America, a force was dispatched to take the vital fortress of Louisbourg, which it did, but there was no time to take Quebec, the next objective. A British force under Maj. Gen. James Abercrombie took heavy casualties in a failed attack on Ticonderoga, but an expedition under Col. John Bradstreet captured Fort Frontenac and gained control of Lake Ontario. As a result, an expedition under Col. Forbes found Fort Duquense abandoned and burned. Fort Pitt on the modern site of Pittsburg was built in its place (Part of John's Military History Page).

In July, Contades advanced from Geissen, threatening Ferdinand's left, pushing him back beyond Minden, which was taken July 9th. The lower Rhine army, under Armentieres took Munster and moved to join Contades. Just when Hanover seemed lost, Ferdinand turned and attacked at Minden (battle map) on August 1st, gaining a great victory. The whole French army could have been destroyed, but the cavalry under Lord George Sackville did not join the attack. Ferdinand followed the French to Warburg, but did not pursue vigorously. An allied force retook Munster, and Contades continued to fall back to Giessen on the Lahn River. Frederick's difficulties forced a reinforcement from Ferdinand, weakening him just when he was doing so well. The new French commander, Broglie, now ordered the lower Rhine army to threaten Ferdinand's right by advancing from Colonge to Dillenburg on the Dill River, but Ferdinand successfully held Marburg (Part of John's Military History Page).

France convinced Spain to enter the war to regain enough naval power to once again attempt an invasion of England. Controversies related to the entry of Spain as well as the coronation of George III led to the fall of Newcastle's and Pitt's government and the formation of a new one under Bute. An invasion of England was never really practical and Spain gained nothing by the war. Despite having a new enemy, Britain captured Martinique (map) from France followed by Havana (map) on August 12, 1762 and Manila on October 6, 1762, both from Spain. With the loss of Havana, Spain lost three ships of the line sunk, nine captured, and two being built, which amounted to roughly 20% of the Spanish navy. More importantly, this blocked Spain's vital trade and treasure network which financed their war effort. Spain invaded Britain's ally Portugal in the hopes of gaining a bargaining chip at the peace talks. They hoped to divert troops from Britain in preparation for the foiled desperate invasion attempt. Britain shifted troops from Belleisle to Portugal and the Spanish invasion was halted (Part of John's Military History Page).

The first minister in the French government, the duc de Choiseul, was determined to regain Martinique and Guadeloupe and to retain a base for the Grand Banks fisheries. He also wanted CAPE BRETON, but had to settle for St.-Pierre and Miquelon. He left Canada to Britain, convinced that the American colonies, no longer needing British military protection, would soon strike out for independence. The loss to France of Canada would be as nothing compared to the loss to Britain of her American colonies. To force the stubborn Spanish king to agree to peace terms, France ceded the vast Louisiana territory as compensation for the loss of Florida.

was complex in its origin and involved two main distinct conflicts -- the colonial rivalry between France and England and the struggle for supremacy in Germany between the house of Austria and the rising kingdom of Prussia. It was preluded in America by the outbreak of the last of the French and Indian Wars and in India by fighting among native factions and the struggle there between the French governor Dupleix and the British statesman Robert Clive.

The War of the Austrian Succession (1740 -- 48) had left Austria humiliated. Seeking to recover Silesia from Prussia, Empress Maria Theresa even before the conclusion of that war had secured the alliance of Elizabeth of Russia. In the years following the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), Kaunitz, as Austrian ambassador to France and then as chancellor, worked for a rapprochement with France.

was severely defeated by the Austrians under Daun at Kolin (June, 1757) and had to evacuate Bohemia. The fighting was carried into Saxony and Silesia, where Frederick gained the great victories of Rossbach (Nov., 1757) and Leuthen (Dec., 1757) over the French and Austrians. The Russians, who had invaded Prussia, were defeated by Frederick at Zorndorf (Aug., 1758). The English and Hanoverians, at first unsuccessful against the French in NW Germany, began a vigorous effort when William Pitt (later earl of Chatham) came into power; the troops then won the victories of Krefeld (June, 1758) and Minden (Aug., 1759).

However, Frederick soon found himself in an almost desperate situation. He was badly beaten by Daun at Kunersdorf (Aug., 1759) and in Nov., 1759, Daun captured a Prussian army of 13,000 at Maxen. In Oct., 1760, the Russians took Berlin. Days later, as Frederick's army approached, they evacuated it, and in November Frederick defeated Daun at Torgau. Nonetheless, his situation remained critical, especially after the fall of Pitt (1761) deprived him of British subsidies. The death (Jan., 1762) of Elizabeth of Russia and the accession of Peter III, Frederick's ardent admirer, helped save him from defeat.

was severely defeated by the Austrians under Daun at Kolin (June, 1757) and had to evacuate Bohemia. The fighting was carried into Saxony and Silesia, where Frederick gained the great victories of Rossbach (Nov., 1757) and Leuthen (Dec., 1757) over the French and Austrians. The Russians, who had invaded Prussia, were defeated by Frederick at Zorndorf (Aug., 1758). The English and Hanoverians, at first unsuccessful against the French in NW Germany, began a vigorous effort when William Pitt (later earl of Chatham) came into power; the troops then won the victories of Krefeld (June, 1758) and Minden (Aug., 1759).

However, Frederick soon found himself in an almost desperate situation. He was badly beaten by Daun at Kunersdorf (Aug., 1759) and in Nov., 1759, Daun captured a Prussian army of 13,000 at Maxen. In Oct., 1760, the Russians took Berlin. Days later, as Frederick's army approached, they evacuated it, and in November Frederick defeated Daun at Torgau. Nonetheless, his situation remained critical, especially after the fall of Pitt (1761) deprived him of British subsidies. The death (Jan., 1762) of Elizabeth of Russia and the accession of Peter III, Frederick's ardent admirer, helped save him from defeat.

Importance of the War

The Seven Years War, or the French and Indian War in North America, had a great impact on world history in several ways.

1) Britain conquered Canada. The American colonists no longer needed protection from Britain, and the attempt by Parliament to tax the colonists to help pay for the war sparked the American Revolution.

2) France and Spain embarked upon a major naval buildup, made possible by the retention by France of fishing rights off the Canadian coast. Stronger Bourbon navies made possible the American victory in the Revolutionary War.

3) the debts France incurred in this war and later in the American Revolution helped cause the French Revolution. The humiliation of the army led to reforms and innovations which were later used with great success by Napoleon.

4) Prussia survived the war and retained Silesia despite enormous odds and confirmed its place as an important European power. After the Napoleonic Wars, Prussia increased its power relative to Austria, and in 1870 Prussia united Germany.

5) Russia showed itself to be a major power capable of enormous influence. It gained greater influence in Poland, and this would eventually lead to its partition.

6) by its lack of participation, the Netherlands showed itself to be in relative decline. Smaller states like the Netherlands and Saxony were becoming increasingly vulnerable. Despite its glorious past, Spain confirmed that it was a weak client state of France with minimal military power.

7) Britain confirmed itself as the world's dominant naval and economic power and a force to be reckoned with in the European balance of power. Britain became the dominant European power in India enabling it to eventually conquer all of India and used its resources to further expand the empire. Some non-"Eurocentric" historians believe British control of India made the Industrial Revolution possible.

Course's name

19 November 2007

The Seven Years War

Introduction

The seven-year began when war broke out in 1756 between France and Great Britain. Along with that, difference between American and Canadian colonists had erupted two years before that began, which cased the war to lead to the fall of New France. From there, the conflict forced Great Britain against France (the seven-year war). This was supported by Austria, Sweden, Saxony, Russia and Spain. In America and Asia, British colonies approached French colonies. New France and New England fought over possession of the continent and dictatorship of the fur trade. "From 1756 to 1763, the Ohio Valley was the site of a historic contest between the French and the English, both of whom wanted to add this fertile soil to their colonial holdings. In this elegant new account of the Seven Years' War, University of Colorado historian Anderson demonstrates that the conflict was more than just a peripheral squabble that anticipated the American Revolution. Not only did the war decisively alter relations among the French, the English and the Native American allies of the two powers, who for decades had played the English and French off one another to their own advantage, but just as critical, argues Anderson, the war also changed the character of British imperialism, with the mother country trying to reshape the terms of empire and the colonists' place in it" (Anderson). Even though the conflicts were separate, the two colonies were directly connected to the victories or defeats of the Motherland (the seven-year war).

Summary of Conflict

Before the Seven Years War even started the War of the Austrian Succession (1740 -- 48) had left Austria humiliated which left them wanting to seek recovery Silesia from Prussia, Empress Maria Theresa even before the conclusion of that war had secured the alliance of Elizabeth of Russia. In the years that followed the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), Kaunitz worked for a rapprochement with France (information on the seven years war).

From 1756 to 1763, the Seven Years War was fought for two primary reasons. The first, and the immediate cause of the war, was colonial competition between France and England in India and America. The American conflict would come to be known as the French and Indian War (Causes of the war).

The second cause was the rising status of Prussia in Germany. The Austrian nobility had come out of the War of Austrian Succession considerably weakened, and without the province of Silesia, lost to Prussia in the last war. In the interests of reclaiming the lost territory, Empress Maria Theresa reached an alliance with Russa and France (Causes of the war).

Countering these works were the Prussians and their allies in Hanover, and by extension, in England, where King George II was also the Elector of Hanover (Causes of the war).

In 1755 the two great alliances were staged, ready for any reason to resume hostilities when word came from America and India that French and English forces had clashed. Ironically, the allies of the two primary participants would be the states to start the war (Causes of the war).

Even though the war began in 1756 in Europe, conflict started two years earlier in 1754, in North America when George Washington was ambush trapped in the Ohio Valley. From that, both Motherlands dispatched troops were not in equal numbers (the seven-year war).

For France, the war in Europe was the top priority, so the country sent just a few troops. It also considered it was more important to protect its colonies in the West Indies, since sugar cane was more lucrative than the fur trade in New France (the seven-year war).

Great Britain was determined to destroy France's colonial empire, and it sent more than 20,000 soldiers to America. It must also be noted that American colonists were unable to defend themselves against their Canadian counterparts, who excelled in the art of the guerilla warfare (the seven-year war).

For New England, it was imperative to obliterate New France and its Native allies, which were preventing the States from acquiring and occupying new land (New England had a very large population and sought new land to occupy and farm.) (the seven-year war).

Although New France did well in the war until 1757, the tide proceeded to turn - in favour of the British troops, who won several victories right up until the battle on the Plains of Abraham in 1759, when James Wolfe defeated the army of Montcalm (the seven-year war).

Within the next year, Vaudreuil was forced to surrender in Montreal, which meant things were far from over. Due to the fact that the final result depended on whether or not France was victorious, in the end, France was defeated on all fronts. In an attempt to redeem the colonies which brought in the most money, France conceded New France in a Treaty signed in 1763 in exchange for keeping the West Indies, which angered the Native allies, who were the Canadians' allies. Due to this, some of them regrouped under the leadership of Pontiac and attempted to continue the war (the seven-year war).

"On learning of these movements the French ordered 6 battalions under Baron Armand Dieskau to be sent to reinforce LOUISBOURG and Canada. Vice-Admiral Edward Boscawen was then ordered to sail with his squadron to intercept and capture the French convoy, although war had not been declared. He captured only 2 ships. The British had even less success on land. The army advancing on Lake Champlain was stopped by the French near Lake George but Dieskau was wounded and taken prisoner. The proposed assault on Niagara collapsed through military ineptitude, and Braddock's 1500-man army was destroyed by a small detachment of French and Indians. Only in ACADIA did the British enjoy success. Fort Beausejour with its small garrison was captured. The Acadian settlers were subsequently rounded up by the New England forces and deported" (the Canadian Encyclopedia).

Within April 1756, there were more French troops and a new commander, which included the marquis de MONTCALM, arrived in Canada, and the next month Britain declared war. The strategy of marquis de MONTCALM was to keep the British on the defensive and as far from Canadian settlements as possible. From there, he captured the British forts at Oswego on Lake Ontario and gained control of the Great Lakes. On the other hand, Canadian and Indian war parties ravaged the American frontier settlements which the Americans could not cope with these attacks. However, Britain was forced to send over twenty-three thousand troops to commit most of its navy to blockading the French ports. The French aim was to tie down these large British forces with a small army. From there, the Canadians and Indian allies spared more valuable colonies from attack (the Canadian Encyclopedia).

"In 1759, 2 British armies advanced on Canada while a third captured Niagara. The Royal Navy brought Major-General James WOLFE with 9000 men to Quebec and General Jeffery AMHERST advanced up Lake Champlain only to halt at Crown Point. After maneuvering fruitlessly all summer Wolfe induced Montcalm to give battle on September 13 outside Quebec, and inflicted a shattering defeat in the Battle of the PLAINS of ABRAHAM. The city surrendered a few days later. The chevalier de LEVIS took over command of the French army and the following April soundly defeated the British on the same battlefield (see Battle of STE-FOY). On May 16 he had to raise the siege of the city when British frigates arrived to dash all hope of French reinforcements. Retiring to Montreal, the French army was forced to capitulate to Amherst on 8 September 1760 (see CONQUEST), freeing the British forces for service elsewhere. In 1762 Martinique was taken and only the intervention of Spain that year saved the other French islands in the West Indies" (the Canadian Encyclopedia).

In Quebec, the garrison had their attention by the Levis batteries. From there, the bulk of the French army still had to remain in these entrenchments. This was due to the fact they covered the only open ground near Quebec and the movements of the fleet in the basin looked as if designed for a renewed attack on them. On the 12th,Saunders distinctly threatened a possible landing by laying in-shore buoys and firing as if to draw the enemy. He also did this by sending all his boats, manned and armed to manoeuvre for the supposed spot at midnight (the Battle of the Plains of Abraham).

"The first minister in the French government, the duc de Choiseul, was determined to regain Martinique and Guadeloupe and to retain a base for the Grand Banks fisheries. He also wanted CAPE BRETON, but had to settle for St.-Pierre and Miquelon. He left Canada to Britain, convinced that the American colonies, no longer needing British military protection, would soon strike out for independence. The loss to France of Canada would be as nothing compared to the loss to Britain of her American colonies. To force the stubborn Spanish king to agree to peace terms, France ceded the vast Louisiana territory as compensation for the loss of Florida" (the Canadian Encyclopedia).

Reasons for the seven years war

Britain did actually try to stop the war from happening and to isolate France diplomatically. Along with that, King George II of Britain was Elector of Hanover in northwestern Germany when Britain would be forced to exchange any colonial conquests to regain it. Furthermore, Britain's security took over safety from invaded relied on friendly or neutral occupation of the North Sea ports (Part of John's Military History Page).

"Britain had a defensive alliance with the Netherlands and Austria for the protection of the Austrian Netherlands, now Belgium. Because Britain had planned to commit its troops to colonial conquest, they refused to help defend the Barrier Forts protecting the area, which weakened their ties to their two former allies. Britain's interception of the Canada convoy, and not French expansion in North America was interpreted as aggression by the European powers. Since the alliance with Holland and Austria was doomed, Britain approached Russia for assistance against potential attacks on Hanover from the French or France's ally from the last war, Prussia. Austria interfered with these efforts by exploiting Czarina Elizabeth's hatred of the Prussian king Frederick. Frederick was in desperate need of an ally and successfully made an alliance with Britain for the protection of Hanover" (Part of John's Military History Page).

However, there are some authors who have researched and presented the Seven Years War in a different light, which could be misinterpretations even though the information has some valid points on how conflicts began and ended. From there, some authors have the bias opinion against the participation of American colonials in the war, which demonstrates consistently inaccurate descriptions of battles in which colonials were engaged (Marston).

"In the Battle of Ticonderoga in 1758, the author states that, "the provincials attacked in the first wave and were easily repulsed. Abercromby then committed his regular troops." This description is false, because the provincial units pushed in the French pickets but were not "easily repulsed." Nor did Abercromby commit his regulars, because they attacked without orders and he lost control of the battle. The author's contention about the Black Watch's attack, that "after an hour of hard hand-to-hand fighting, the attack was called off," is also misleading. Only a few Highlanders made it to the French entrenchments and the attack failed because the unit was virtually destroyed. A similar example occurs during the Forbes expedition, when the author states that "on 14 September the British suffered a setback when the French garrison attacked their position, causing their provincial units to disperse" (Marston).

Despite the fact that there are bias author on the subject, over the last few decades, a number of excellent scholarly studies of the war are relatively few, however, and most date from the early twentieth century. In the French Navy and the Seven Years' War, the historian Jonathan R. Dull picks up a high vantage point, which gives his readers a remarkably detailed look at the political, diplomatic, military, and naval events of the war (Doll).

"The Seven Years War saw Britain established as the greatest colonial power, with control over India and North America seemingly secured, while Prussia emerged as the greatest power on the Continent, and the dominant force inside Germany, reducing still further the power of the Holy Roman Empire and Habsburg Austria. Frederick II of Prussia (the Great) emerges as the most remarkable leader of the war. Prussia was the smallest of the main combatants, and yet Frederick survived year after year of campaigning, and despite coming near to defeat he emerged triumphant" (Richard).

Most histories of the American Revolution tend to start in 1763, which was the end of the Seven-Year's War. The war was a worldwide struggle for empire that pitted France against England in North America, Europe, and Asia. Fred Anderson, who is a historian takes the story back a decade and explains the significance of the conflict in American history which showed independence that was not inevitable or even at first desired by the colonists. Furthermore, Anderson has continued to show how removal of the threat from France was essential before Americans could develop their own concepts of democratic government.

"Of great interest is the importance of Native Americans in the conflict. Both the French and English had Indian allies; France's defeat ended a diplomatic system in which Indian nations, especially the 300-year-old Iroquois League, held the balance between the colonial powers. In a fast-paced narrative, Anderson moves with confidence and ease from the forests of Ohio and battlefields along the St. Lawrence to London's House of Commons and the palaces of Europe. He makes complex economic, social, and diplomatic patterns accessible and easy to understand. Using a vast body of research, he takes the time to paint the players as living personalities, from George III and George Washington to a host of supporting characters. The book's usefulness and clarity are enhanced by a hundred landscapes, portraits, maps, and charts taken from contemporary sources. Crucible of War is political and military history at its best; it never flags and is a pleasure to read" (Anderson).