Ramayana, Gilgamesh, and The Art of War: Ancient Texts Compared

Introduction: Literature as a Window into the Ancient World

Literature connects the reader with the time period in which it was written. This is why the writings of the distant past, even in translation, are among the most fascinating to modern scholars. Anthropologists such as Saussure and Joseph Campbell were seminal in uncovering mythological themes in ancient texts. As archaeology supplemented legend, the literary world found evidence that the mythical worlds evoked by the works of antiquity were in some cases based in fact. Three of the most intriguing works of antiquity are the Ramayana, The Epic of Gilgamesh, and The Art of War. Each provides the reader with insight into the origins of a particular culture or geographic region.

The Ramayana: India's Foundational Epic

The Ramayana represents one of the oldest epic myths of world literature. As such, it has been more influential in Indian culture than any other work. The epic, which was recounted in oral tradition long before being committed to writing, tells of how Rama—the Indian prince of a mythical kingdom called Ayodhya, considered one of the incarnations of Vishnu—comes to battle a demon-king named Ravana. Rama is banished from his city at the behest of his scheming mother, who wishes his younger brother to become king despite Rama having been previously appointed. Rama's other younger brother, Laksmana, joins him in exile, and Rama's wife, Sita, follows him as a matter of faith. Notably, the notion of faithful wives following political leaders into exile appears in several cultures; among the most celebrated modern examples are the Russian noblewomen of the nineteenth century who abandoned title and status to follow their exiled husbands to Siberia.

In the commonly accepted version of the Ramayana, Sita is taken captive by Ravana. Ravana is the brother of Surpunakha, a demon woman who is wounded by Laksmana for attempting to seduce Rama. Hanuman, the monkey king, is befriended by the brothers as they search for Sita. Hanuman is able to grow and shrink at will and is regarded as a paragon of loyalty. Together with an army of monkeys, Hanuman, Rama, and his brother invade Lanka in order to retrieve Sita. Rama later abandons his wife in order to maintain the sanctity of public opinion; she goes to live in the ashram (spiritual community) of the sage Valmiki and bears Rama twin sons, Lava and Kusa. As young men, the sons are reunited with their father, the god-king Rama.

The Ramayana survived for centuries in the oral tradition of India alongside the Mahabharata. It exists in many permutations that are often specific to the traditions of particular communities, ranging from Bengali versions in which Rama, the protagonist, is cast as the enemy, to the original Sanskrit composition attributed to Valmiki. According to biographer Michel Pousse, R. K. Narayan's version of the Ramayana reflected that recommended to him by his uncle: the Kamban Ramayana. Narayan was from southern India, a region steeped in the Vedic traditions that preceded the Aryan invasions. Ultimately, it will always remain a matter of conjecture whether the Ramayana is a work of pure fiction or a fictionalized account of historical events. Many of the Hindu faithful believe it to have historical significance in much the same way that some Christians retain faith in the creation story of Genesis.

The Epic of Gilgamesh: Myth and Mortality in Mesopotamia

One of the formative myths of Babylonian and Sumerian civilization is The Epic of Gilgamesh. The only nearly complete version of the epic was retrieved from the collection of the seventh-century BCE Assyrian king Ashurbanipal. The Assyrian version was copied from an original composed in Old Babylonian times, itself based on legends from older Sumerian sources about a king of the city of Uruk on the Euphrates River. Uruk—known in the Bible as "Ur of the Chaldees"—is familiar as one of the oldest cities in antiquity; it is associated with the birthplace of Abram, and its ruins can still be found in modern southern Iraq. The work is considered the principal epic of ancient Mesopotamia and was recorded on eleven clay tablets.

The Epic of Gilgamesh begins with an account of Gilgamesh incurring the displeasure of the city's elders by leading the young men of Uruk on dangerous expeditions. The elders decide to create a companion for him: a man called Enkidu, who is born in the wild. Enkidu angers the herdsmen by releasing animals from their traps. At the herdsmen's request, the council of elders sends a woman to Enkidu; she diverts his interest from the wild animals, who subsequently lose faith in him. Enkidu returns to Uruk and fights with Gilgamesh to determine who is the stronger; neither prevails, and they become close friends. They venture north along the Euphrates and procure valuable timber, to the delight of Uruk's citizens.

Gilgamesh is tempted by the goddess Ishtar, whom he refuses. She proceeds to marry Dumuzi in a section of the epic that provides keen insights into the sexual rites of ancient Mesopotamia, then threatens to open the gates of the underworld. The gods send a Bull of Heaven to destroy Gilgamesh and Enkidu, but the two companions slay the bull and further enrage Ishtar. Because Gilgamesh is protected, the gods resolve to kill Enkidu in his place. Enkidu, condemned by the gods, gradually wastes away and dies. His death fills Gilgamesh with guilt; he dreams of his companion suffering in the underworld, and the experience confronts him with his own mortality. His father had been a god and lived for a thousand years, but Gilgamesh was mortal and knew that he, too, would one day die.

Gilgamesh resolves to seek out the only two people who had lived forever—a man and a woman dwelling in a garden on the island of Dilmun, located at the far end of a tunnel that ran beneath the world from where the sun set in the west to where it rose in the east. This immortality theme resonates with later traditions, including Arthurian legend. On the island he meets the immortal king Utnapishtim, who recounts how Enlil, king of the gods, once destroyed the world with a flood. Utnapishtim built a boat and survived along with a few others. For many readers, this is the most striking part of the epic, as it closely parallels the flood narrative of Genesis. In the Gilgamesh account, humankind was destroyed because it disturbed the chief god's sleep; the other gods then persuaded Enlil never to destroy humanity with a flood again and granted Utnapishtim immortality as recompense.

Gilgamesh learns of a plant at the bottom of the sea that would restore youth. With the help of the boatman who had carried him to Utnapishtim's island, he retrieves it—but a serpent steals and eats it. Gilgamesh ultimately accepts that he will die, but takes comfort in the knowledge that he will live on through his legends and deeds.

Conclusion: The Enduring Value of Ancient Texts

In the case of the first two works, we know this much: there was a city called Uruk and many communities across India recount versions of the Ramayana. Beyond this, little is certain. The Art of War remains relevant to strategists who still consider its methodologies. Together, these three works provide an understanding of human origins, and some even offer the allure of creation myths that give the faithful hope in the divine. Regardless of their historical veracity, these books are to be treasured as evidence of enduring legends and of the sophisticated understanding of complex social, moral, and military themes that allow us to better understand human nature.

References

Narayan, R. K. Ramayana. Viking Penguin Inc., 1999.

Pousse, Michel. Narayan: A Painter of Modern India. Peter Lang, 1995.

Sanders, N. K. The Epic of Gilgamesh. Penguin Books, 1972.

Sun Tzu. The Art of War. Retrieved from http://www.chinapage.com/sunzi-e.html