Causes of Criminal Behavior: Theories and Serial Killers

Introduction

Although crimes have been committed since time immemorial, a systematic study of the causes of criminal behavior — or why crimes are committed — is a relatively recent phenomenon. Various theories have been put forward and numerous research studies have been conducted to better understand the criminal mind in order to prevent or reduce crime. It is, perhaps, a tribute to the complexity of the human brain that most of these theories remain just "theories," with little evidence to support definite and irrefutable patterns of criminal behavior. This is not to suggest that all theories of criminology are worthless — most of them do provide useful insight into the criminal mind and at least partially explain the reasons why crimes are committed by certain individuals. This paper explores some of the leading theories of criminal behavior that have attempted to shed light on its causes, including a discussion of the serial killer and the possible reasons behind their deviant behavior.

Background and Early Theories

The earliest theories about crime attributed evil acts to the influence of demons or the planets — that is, through demonology and astrology. Religious scriptures and Christianity discuss crime in theological terms and consider it to be a sin. Punishment for crimes during early periods of human history was often brutal, although Christianity emphasized penitence by the criminal for forgiveness by God (Lynch, "Criminology"). Systematic study of crime and its causes, in isolation from the concept of sin, only began in the late eighteenth century.

An Italian jurist, Marchese di Beccaria, published an important work in 1764 titled Essays on Crimes and Punishments, in which he opposed the overly severe punishments that were in vogue at the time — including the death penalty — and argued that the certainty, rather than the severity, of punishment was a more effective deterrent to crime (Lynch, "Classical Criminology"). This was also the period when the prominent British philosopher Jeremy Bentham proposed that punishments should be based on the principle of utility, and he was instrumental in lowering the severity of punishments in Britain. The contributors to classical criminology were more concerned with improving existing standards of crime and punishment than with producing studies about the causes of crime specifically, but they laid the foundation for scientific and systematic inquiry in later times.

Cesare Lombroso (1836–1909) was an Italian criminologist who advocated the theory that hereditary factors were responsible for predisposing certain individuals toward crime. Although his theories have largely been discredited by later research, they evoked considerable interest when first unveiled. Lombroso attributed distinct physical characteristics to criminal "types," such as asymmetry of the skull, a low and retreating forehead, strongly arched brows, large and outstanding ears, and left-handedness (Reckless, p. 164). He also attributed a number of mental attributes to criminals, including relative insensibility to pain, acuteness of vision, obtuseness of the senses of smell, taste, touch, and hearing, absence of remorse, lack of moral sense, violent temper, and extreme vanity (Ibid.).

Most of Lombroso's theories were disproved by Charles Goring, a British criminologist working in the early twentieth century, who used comparative studies of prisoners and non-prisoners to show that the so-called criminal type as described by Lombroso did not exist. The importance of Lombroso's work to the understanding of criminal behavior cannot be denied, however, since it focused scholarly attention on the scientific study of the causes of crime and laid the foundations of modern criminology.

Biological Theories of Criminal Behavior

Lombroso's theories may have been largely discredited, but other, more sophisticated biological theories — offshoots of his original framework — have persisted. Rather than considering physical appearance as an indicator of the criminal type, these theories emphasize genetic inheritance or irregularities in neurological and brain development. Despite some correlation found in twin studies regarding criminal disposition, a genetic predisposition to criminality remains inconclusive. Similarly, some evidence links certain brain irregularities — such as low levels of serotonin and impairment of the frontal lobe of the brain's cerebrum — to aggressive behavior and violent crime. However, more research is required to verify these findings (Lynch, "Biological Theories of Crime").

Psychological Theories

The psychological theories about the causes of criminal behavior can be divided into three broad categories: (1) moral development theories, (2) social learning theories, and (3) personality theories.

Moral development theories contend that all individuals pass through different stages of moral development, and that people whose moral development is incomplete — for whatever reason — cannot adequately differentiate between right and wrong. Such individuals are more likely to exhibit criminal behavior. Social learning theories, by contrast, emphasize that the process of learning and internalizing moral codes has more to do with socialization than with developmental stages. Learning theorists believe that all children learn to behave in response to how adults — particularly parents — react to their compliance with or violations of rules. The rewards and penalties prescribed by parents and elders become so ingrained in a child's psyche that such behavior becomes second nature for life. It is therefore believed that criminal or non-criminal behavior depends largely on the type of socialization a person has undergone. Studies of delinquent youth indicate that they were subjected either to overly lax and erratic discipline or to unduly harsh discipline.

Personality theories are largely based on the work of Sigmund Freud, who believed there was a connection between deviant behavior and the unconscious mind, and that criminal behavior results from the failure to resolve the tension between individualism and society.

Conclusion

Numerous theories have been advanced about the causes of criminal behavior ever since criminology became a serious subject of study in the late eighteenth century, several of which were briefly discussed in this paper. Although most of these theories provide some insight into the minds of criminals and why they commit crimes, there is still no consensus among experts regarding the causes of criminal conduct. Much more research is therefore required before we can fully understand why people commit crimes.

Works Cited

Bardsley, Marilyn. "David Berkowitz — Son of Sam." Crime Library. Courtroom Television Network Website, 2003.

Bell, Rachel. "Ted Bundy — A Time of Change." Crime Library. Courtroom Television Network Website, 2003.

Lynch, James P. "Criminology." Encyclopedia Encarta. CD-ROM Version, 2003.

Reckless, Walter C. Criminal Behavior. 1st ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1940.

Reed, Fred. "Specialists Look at Rare Phenomenon of Serial Killers." The Washington Times, 13 Aug. 2001, p. 2.

Scott, Shirley Lynn. "What Makes Serial Killers Tick?" Crime Library. Courtroom Television Network Website, 2003.