Celtic to Norman: Key Influences That Shaped Britain

The Celts

Celtic history and influence in Britain spanned several centuries, between the 7th and 1st centuries BCE. The Celts originated in Central and Western Europe and eventually migrated to the British Isles. They would have a profound impact on early British linguistic and cultural development, and were later considered adversaries of the Romans, who successfully dominated and nearly obliterated Celtic culture on the islands. After the downfall of the Roman Empire and the waning of Roman rule in Great Britain, Celtic culture enjoyed a small resurgence. However, Druidic religion and culture would ultimately be overshadowed by Christianity.

The lingering effects of Celtic culture remained strong throughout British history. Celtic influence on British culture encompasses language, weapons, culture, religion, and art. Language and cultural identity are inextricable from Celtic influence, and many Celtic languages are still spoken throughout the British Isles today, including Welsh, Manx, and both Scottish and Irish Gaelic. Iron weapons, iron coins, iron tools, and iron for chariots were all major Celtic contributions to British society. The Celts also introduced the Druid religion and distinctive art forms, including the flowing knot patterns characteristic of Celtic design.

The Romans

Roman influence in Britain began soon after the Roman conquest of Gaul — modern-day France. One of the primary reasons Emperor Caesar conquered Britain was to punish the Celts for supposedly aiding the Gallic cause. Caesar also recognized the potential for plundering the wealth of the island nations of Britannia. The Roman era of British history imparted the name Britannia to most of what is now Great Britain. A first Roman invasion occurred in 55–54 BCE. A second invasion took place in 43 CE, initiated by Claudius. Among Claudius's motives were bolstering his reputation as a military leader and gaining a political and military stronghold throughout the region — objectives that entailed suppressing, oppressing, and ultimately eliminating the Druidic Celts. Wales fell to the Romans in 78 CE. Hadrian's Wall demarcated the boundary of Roman Britannia between 122 and 128 CE, a boundary that still broadly distinguishes England from Scotland today. In the 2nd century CE, an era of relative peace ensued. By the 5th century CE, Roman influence globally declined, and the Scots, the Picts, and the Saxons all helped drive the Romans away. The Romans ultimately left Britain, facilitating the influx of the Anglo-Saxons.

The Romans left a lasting legacy in Great Britain across its social, political, and cultural institutions. The Emperor appointed governors who oversaw public works and local governance, and this Roman system of government laid the foundations for the future British system. A system of taxation was likewise a lasting impact of Roman rule. Another important contribution was engendering a strong sense of urban life and culture in Britain, which paved the way for the development of London as a major hub. The Romans also cultivated many crops, including grain, fostering the development of trade. One of the most important legacies of Roman rule was literacy: the use of the Latin language in law, business, and culture meant that much of the populace became familiar with the language, and Roman and Celtic words remain part of English to this day. Perhaps the most important legacy of Roman rule, however, was the delivery of Christianity to the British Isles. Christianity became fused with Celtic aesthetics and culture in some parts of Britannia, and by the 4th century it was the official faith of the region. Christianity was even brought to Ireland in 462 CE by St. Patrick. By the end of the 5th century, most of Britain was Christian.

The Anglo-Saxons

Rome gradually lost control of its British territories, due in part to invasions from Saxons and Angles. Known collectively as the Anglo-Saxons, they were a collection of Germanic tribes of pagan people who arrived in the British Isles around the 5th century CE. The Angles and the Saxons were warrior-like peoples who were quite different from the literate and Christian Celts and Romans they encountered. The Anglo-Saxons were pagan rather than Christian, though they would later convert. Their social structures were tribal and feudal rather than republican in nature, as the Romans had been. Although the English people resisted them, the Anglo-Saxons conquered Britain when opportunity presented itself. Since then, Anglo-Saxons have formed the cornerstone of English culture, language, and civilization following the decline of the Roman era. The Anglo-Saxon invasion even gave rise to one of the most pervasive and enduring of all British legends: that of King Arthur.

The Anglo-Saxons ultimately converted to Christianity. St. Augustine is credited with their conversion. This conversion produced a fusion of culture and language that remains a tremendous legacy of the Anglo-Saxon period. Roman, Celtic, and Anglo-Saxon influences together shaped the development of Christianity throughout the region — multifaceted influences that determined how Christianity would be practiced not just in England but around the world. Medieval Anglo-Saxon England was also the first period of pan-British unity, in which disparate kingdoms were politically consolidated. Until the Viking and Norman Conquests, Anglo-Saxon culture dominated life in England. Old English is itself primarily an Anglo-Saxon language.