Female Literacy and Economic Development: A Four-Country Comparison

An often-forgotten component of advancing a nation's economy is its literacy rate. As the world grows increasingly globalized and sophisticated in terms of the technology required to function at an optimal level, a literate population is critical for developing the technological infrastructure needed for a state to operate within that global framework. However, not every nation has made female literacy a focus within its developmental strategy. In the Central African Republic, Iran, and Myanmar, for example, female literacy rates are lower than male literacy rates — though notable differences emerge when these rates are compared across countries. High levels of female literacy have been found to have a particularly dramatic impact on a nation's social and economic development, given the documented link between female literacy and lower birth rates, lower poverty rates (as a result of smaller family sizes), and improved health outcomes.¹ This paper compares the literacy rates of Cuba, the Central African Republic, Iran, and Myanmar (Burma) in both general and female-specific terms, and examines whether the established principles regarding development and female literacy are supported by the evidence.

Constructivism and feminism can both be applied as theoretical frameworks to this research. The theoretical framework of constructivist developmental theory is useful because it shows the way in which literacy, as a vehicle for knowledge development, plays an important role in social development. It coincides with the feminist framework applied by Robinson-Pant, which uses gender as an approach for investigating the link between female literacy and economic development.² The constructivist approach additionally allows for a focus on the connection between learning and socioeconomic development based on the external factors within a community that supply the mechanisms for development, whether those mechanisms involve learning or investing.

Cognitive constructivism, as developed by Jean Piaget, asserts that sense data is pivotal to the development of knowledge and skills, and that information is acquired through the senses as well as through the cognitive application of the mind. Piaget believed that people acquire knowledge and skills through a process of assimilation and accommodation, during which they seek a state of equilibrium as they gather and balance the pieces of information offered to them within their educational environment. This means that through mental effort, knowledge is constructed — and in order for that knowledge to be constructed, a mechanism must first exist within society to deliver knowledge in the first place. In other words, in order for literacy to be achieved, a conscious effort must be made on the part of society to pursue that goal. Without proper planning and focus, the goal will remain out of reach. It should therefore come as no surprise that higher literacy rates translate into a more highly functioning national economy.

This connects directly to the important factor of female literacy: the higher the rates of literacy among females, the more it indicates that this population is becoming more knowledgeable and thus more likely to engage meaningfully in the social and economic life of a community. Lev Vygotsky defined a related theory — social constructivism — which holds that language and communication are essential aspects of human development, and that both require social interaction in order to be achieved. According to this theory, literacy depends upon social interaction, and the more social interaction there is within a community, the more likely that community is to develop in a positive direction. Both of these theories serve this research well, as each helps explain how literacy relates to economic development — particularly with regard to female literacy, a population that has been traditionally underserved in nations like Cuba, Myanmar, Iran, and the Central African Republic. The constructivist theories of Piaget and Vygotsky are useful in showing how people develop their skills and how cognition and social interaction in turn help to develop a nation.³

In nations like Iran, the Central African Republic, and Myanmar, literacy rates among females are lower than they are among men.⁴ Cuba is the one exception, with literacy rates reportedly equal between men and women. Nonetheless, UNICEF reports that literacy rates among youth and adults are improving as a result of globalization and the spread of universal ideals regarding education and equality: "Globally, the youth literacy rate increased from 83 per cent to 91 per cent over two decades, while the number of illiterate youth declined from 170 million to 115 million."⁵ However, UNICEF also notes that "regional and gender disparities persist," pointing to the fact that "literacy is lowest in least developed countries and higher among males than females."⁶ Overall, female literacy rates remain low in developing countries: UNICEF has found that "young women accounted for 59 per cent of the total illiterate youth population."⁷

It is helpful to bear these figures in mind before comparing the female literacy rates of Cuba, Myanmar, Iran, and the Central African Republic — all of which may be considered developing countries, though each is developing in its own way and at its own pace. It is also worth considering that each country has its own unique culture, norms, and expectations, which play a significant role in how well education is advanced and the degree to which female literacy is achieved.

Starting with Iran, it is worth noting that this country is particularly advanced for a developing nation. Iran plays a central role in the stability of the Middle East and has maintained a relatively stable economy despite significant international sanctions. It holds democratic elections and has cultivated positive relationships with Russia, China, and many countries in Europe, positioning itself as a key player in the expansion of China's Silk Road initiative. Iran is thus best understood as comparatively well-developed among developing countries.

With this in mind, it should not be surprising that Iran's female literacy rate is relatively high among the four countries compared here. While there is an 8.7 percentage point difference between male and female literacy in Iran — 91.2% for men and 82.5% for women — this still represents an average literacy rate of approximately 86.85%. The fact that more than 8 out of 10 women in Iran are literate bodes well for the state's economic and social infrastructure.

Iran is, however, unique among the four countries in that it is described as "a bundle of contradictions. Women can't testify fully in court, and yet women can be judges presiding over the court."⁸ In other words, educated women are permitted to contribute to society in many important ways — but cultural norms also shape and sometimes limit the extent to which their participation is permitted. Yet, because literacy rates for women are in the eightieth percentile, it is not surprising to find an Iranian lawyer observing: "We do have women judges. Any woman who wants to travel abroad needs the consent of her husband. But our vice president is a woman. So when our vice president travels abroad, she needs the consent of her husband. Meanwhile, sixty-five percent of Iranian university students are women, because they do better on entrance exams than men do."⁹

What this illustrates is that Iran has a culture that accepts and supports female education and female literacy, while simultaneously maintaining traditional attitudes toward women's roles in other domains. This dynamic may help explain why the country is both well-developed and still developing: it is, as noted, a "bundle of contradictions." Nonetheless, Iran compares favorably to the other countries in this study — particularly the Central African Republic.

According to Steven Radelet, the Central African Republic is one of ten countries in the developing world "with negative per capita growth, or falling average incomes."¹⁰ Most of these ten countries are in Africa. The Central African Republic is unique among the four selected countries not only for its dismal economic outlook but also for its extremely low rate of female literacy. The literacy rate for women in the Central African Republic sits at only 24.4% — a full 26.4 percentage points below the male literacy rate of 50.7%. Compared to Iran, far fewer women in the Central African Republic are able to read: just under 3 out of 10 women are literate.

This disparity is especially significant given the dire state of the Central African Republic relative to Iran in terms of economic and social development. The nation lacks advanced infrastructure, faces serious challenges related to safety and corruption, and has very little sustainable culture of educational development. As a result, "women make up less than 10 percent of the students in institutions of higher learning" in the country.¹¹ The nation's poverty is directly linked to its low female literacy rate, as both are products of the country's broader cultural impoverishment and its instability across social, political, and economic dimensions. The Central African Republic thus represents the most extreme case in this comparison, where low female literacy and low development reinforce one another.