Gender-Based Education in Middle Schools: A Literature Review

Challenges of Middle School Education and Overall Achievement

For many decades there have been disparities in education along the lines of gender. Some of these disparities were the result of sexism and an unwillingness to teach female students. However, in the current educational environment many of these disparities can be attributed to the fact that boys and girls simply learn differently. As such, adjustments have to be made in teaching styles. These adjustments are particularly needed at the middle school level, where subjects such as math and science become more difficult and female students start to lose interest. Gender segregation within the context of middle schools is a topic that has received a great deal of attention in recent years, as has the disparity between boys and girls in math scores at the middle school level.

The purpose of this literature review is to summarize the existing research related to gender-specific learning experiences in middle school students. More specifically, the review focuses on the challenges associated with middle school education and overall student achievement. It also summarizes research related to gender differences in learning styles, and examines gender-based education both generally and as applied to middle school in particular. A synthesis of findings is provided at the conclusion.

Since the inception of middle schools in the 1980s, controversy has surrounded the concept of a separate school for students entering early adolescence. The idea behind the development of middle schools was to offer an alternative to the traditional junior high school. Educators believed that middle schools would create an educational environment more consistent with the needs of children in early adolescence. With the introduction of middle school also came new organizational and instructional practices, such as the interdisciplinary team approach to instruction ("Problems and Promise"). That is, students have different teachers for each subject as a way to prepare them for high school. Dickinson (2001) argues that middle schools also came about because educators wanted to keep early adolescents away from the negative influences posed by older adolescents. Educators also believed that middle school would expose students to college preparatory classes prior to entering high school. With this understood, middle school was established because of both social and scholastic concerns (Dickinson, 2001).

For many years, educators have acknowledged the difficulties associated with middle school education that are not present at the elementary or high school level. Early adolescence can be a difficult time for students. According to an article entitled "Problems and Promise of the American Middle School," there are approximately nine million students in middle school. Middle school serves as "an intermediary phase between elementary school and high school" ("Problems and Promise," p. 1). The article explains that middle schools have taken blame for many of the behavioral and academic problems seen in adolescents, as well as for the disengagement that teen students exhibit toward school and academic achievement.

In many school districts, middle school comprises students in sixth, seventh, and eighth grades, though in some districts it includes only 7th and 8th graders. Although there has been a great deal of concern about the middle school concept and the problems that exist for its students, many of these issues remain unresolved.

One of the primary problems with middle school is the issue of transition. Many students have attended a single elementary school where they are familiar with teachers and fellow students. In middle school, however, a significant transition takes place because students come from several different elementary schools and are often placed in classes where they know none of their classmates ("Problems and Promise"). This can lead to considerable problems in how students adjust to the new environment.

A book entitled Middle School and the Age of Adjustment reiterates that transitioning from elementary school to middle school can be quite difficult. The author explains that students suddenly go from having one teacher to having as many as seven, each with a different teaching style and different expectations. As the author notes, "At age eleven, children now must adjust to seven teachers, seven personality types. Even if every teacher was a model of patience and helpfulness, adjusting to seven authority figures takes some time. For example, Mrs. A. may post the homework on the front board, and Mr. B. may post homework on the sideboard. As simple as this may sound, it is difficult for some eleven-year-olds to think expansively enough to adjust to this" (Bernstein, 2002, p. 14).

Additionally, middle school students must be more organized than in elementary school because teachers are no longer constantly reminding them of expected assignments. Becoming more organized requires help from both teachers and parents and is a genuinely difficult aspect of the transition (Bernstein, 2002). The author also notes that one surprisingly difficult aspect of middle school is memorizing locker combinations. Many students arrive not knowing how to open a locker, and in middle school they typically have two — one for gym class and one for other classes. Failing to open a locker often causes sixth-grade students significant anxiety, illustrating the breadth of challenges the transition presents.

A book entitled Reinventing the Middle School identifies two major challenges: interdisciplinary or team teaching, and teachers who have not been adequately trained to work with early adolescent students. The author contends that the interdisciplinary approach is often difficult to implement because teachers do not know how to communicate effectively with one another. Without communication, such an approach is nearly impossible to implement well. In addition, teaching early adolescent students presents challenges that many teachers are not equipped to handle. These students are going through a range of emotional, social, and physiological changes that affect mood and behavior — and, consequently, the way they learn.

A book entitled Focus on the Wonder Years: Challenges Facing the American Middle School elaborates on the problem of teacher preparation:

"Unlike elementary and high school teachers, middle school teachers typically have not been trained to teach at the grade level they are teaching; rather, most have been trained to teach at either the elementary or the high school level. Middle school teachers certified at the elementary level may lack an in-depth knowledge of their subject area. Middle school teachers certified at the elementary or high school level may not understand the developmental needs of young adolescents or the instructional practices advocated for today's middle schools. Thus, there is a push to require middle school teachers to obtain specific certification." (Juvonen et al., 2004, pp. 73–74)

The authors further assert that many middle school teachers do not have sufficient knowledge of the subject matter they teach. Compared to high school teachers, middle school science, social studies, and math teachers are frequently teaching subjects in which they were not formally prepared — that is, subject areas in which they did not major or minor in college (Ingersoll, 1999; Juvonen et al., 2004). A study conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics found that nearly 50% of all middle school students, and more than 50% of students in high-poverty middle schools, have instructors who do not hold at least a minor in the subject they teach ("To Close the Gap, Quality Counts," 2003; Juvonen et al., 2004, p. 75).

Research has focused particularly on subject-matter preparation in mathematics. Heaviside et al. (1998) found that having a teacher with a bachelor's degree in mathematics increased mathematics achievement in eighth graders, though the same was not true for fourth-grade students. Chaney (1995) found that strong subject-matter preparation of math and science teachers was positively correlated with an increase in student achievement. Juvonen et al. (2004) emphasize that a teacher's in-depth understanding of mathematics is especially important in middle school, noting that eighth-grade students who take algebra are more likely to apply to college than those who do not (Atanda, 1999). When middle school students have teachers with college degrees in the relevant subject matter, those students are more likely to perform well on tests (Wilson, Floden, & Ferrini-Mundy, 2001).

Researchers who have reviewed the evidence on subject-matter training believe that teacher training programs should address not only content but also its conceptual underpinnings and the development of strong reasoning ability (Wilson, Floden, & Ferrini-Mundy, 2001). Other evidence suggests that the effects of teachers' subject-matter preparation on student performance may be cumulative (Monk & King, 1994) and most apparent in courses of greater difficulty (Hawk, Coble, & Swanson, 1985). It is important not only that teachers possess subject-matter expertise but also that they know how to transmit this knowledge to students (Killion, 1999; Juvonen et al., 2004, p. 75).

Indeed, one of the major challenges facing middle schools in America is a lack of teacher preparation — both in terms of working with early adolescents generally and in terms of subject-matter depth. The RAND research brief "Problems and Promise of the American Middle School" also notes that no research has conclusively demonstrated that students benefit academically from the middle school environment. To the contrary, there is evidence suggesting that separate schools and the transitions they require can cause problems that negatively affect students' developmental and academic progress. RAND recommends that states and school districts consider alternatives to the 6–8 grade structure in order to reduce multiple transitions and better align educational goals across grades K–12.

The challenges of transition are also visible in overall achievement data. Even though average achievement scores have risen over time, serious disparities persist — particularly along racial and ethnic lines. Nearly 70% of American eighth-grade students do not perform at grade level in science, math, and reading, based on national assessments. This is especially true among Black and Latino students, even those whose parents hold college degrees. To address this, some researchers recommend programs such as summer school prior to sixth grade and additional reading and math coursework during the middle school years.

Gender Differences in Achievement

According to Focus on the Wonder Years, curriculum focus in American middle schools has historically centered on meeting the social, emotional, and psychological needs of early adolescents. In more recent times, however, the trend has shifted toward academic achievement, driven largely by the accountability requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. This federally mandated act requires all middle school students to be tested and places sanctions on schools whose students perform poorly. Critics have also argued that middle schools are academically undemanding, pointing to poor performance on international mathematics and science assessments as evidence (Carnegie, 1989; Jackson & Davis, 2000; Schmidt, McKnight, et al., 1999; Cooney, 1998a; Juvonen et al., 2004, p. 28).

Overall academic achievement is vitally important for students and for America's standing globally. American fourth-grade students perform at an average level in mathematics when compared to peers in Australia, Canada, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, England, Hong Kong, Hungary, Iran, Italy, Japan, Korea, Latvia, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Singapore, and Slovenia — ranking ninth among those nations. However, by eighth grade, American students fall below average, with only five of those countries ranking lower (Juvonen et al., 2004). The research suggests that American students do not struggle with math at the elementary level; the decline occurs between fourth and eighth grade. This pattern has led some educators to question the purpose and value of the middle school model and to call for its reform (Juvonen et al., 2004).

An article entitled "Effects of Girls-Only Curriculum during Adolescence: Performance, Persistence, and Engagement in Mathematics and Science" explains that a great deal of existing research has found high school to be the period in which interest in math declines — both among students overall and among adolescent girls in particular (AAUW, 1990, 1998; Shapka & Keating). This decline is cause for concern because it can prevent girls from entering college majors that require advanced mathematics. Girls who are disinterested in math are more likely to avoid math-intensive majors, which often translates into lower lifetime earnings relative to male peers who earn degrees in STEM fields. The authors also assert that lower levels of mathematical achievement among girls and women place them at a disadvantage in a society where technology and mathematics are increasingly intertwined (Shapka & Keating).

There have long been substantial gender differences in academic achievement. In past decades, men outperformed women on many measures. Today, however, women are consistently outperforming men in several areas of educational attainment — particularly in college completion. As one article on the emerging gender gap notes, "females are now doing as well as or better than males on many of the indicators of educational attainment, and the large gaps in educational attainment that once existed between men and women have in most cases been eliminated" (Bae et al., 2000, p. 2). In 1972, more males than females enrolled in post-secondary education (53% versus 46%); by 1997 the reverse was true, with 70% of females enrolling in college compared to 64% of males (DiPrete & Buchmann, 2003).

Much of this shift can be attributed to the type of education and messages girls receive throughout K–12 schooling. Even though disparities persist in high school math and science performance, girls are still attending college at higher rates than men. Nevertheless, women remain underrepresented in higher-paying fields in science and technology. Since the American and global economies are increasingly dependent on math, science, and technology, this disparity must be addressed. Many experts in education believe that gender-segregated or gender-specific instruction could be part of the solution.

Perspectives and Expectations

Regarding perspectives on the challenges of middle school education and overall achievement, the literature offers several viewpoints. Some experts feel the middle school concept should be abandoned altogether, with students attending elementary school from kindergarten through eighth grade. They argue that middle school serves no meaningful purpose and that the transition is too difficult for many students to overcome. They also assert that by eighth grade, students are better equipped to handle the subsequent transition to high school.

On the other hand, other experts argue that the middle school concept simply needs to be reformed. They contend that early adolescence is a unique developmental period and that these students have specific needs that differ from those of both elementary and high school students. Proponents of middle school reform argue that the original pedagogy — including interdisciplinary teaching and college preparatory coursework — simply needs to be properly implemented. They assert that when executed well, this model can be genuinely beneficial to students.

Overall, the future of middle school in America remains uncertain. On the one hand, middle school has become an educational norm and a rite of passage in American society. On the other hand, many middle schools are failing to prepare students for high school and college in a manner consistent with the original vision for the model.

To address the achievement issues outlined above, gender-specific or gender-segregated schools have increased in popularity. The concept of single-sex schooling is not new; such schools have existed at every level from elementary through post-secondary education for many years. For the purposes of this review, the focus is on K–12 education. Gender-specific education is most commonly found in private or magnet schools, many of which have long separated students by gender on the belief that doing so creates a learning environment more conducive to academic success.

Literature on Gender-Specific Education

The primary justification for separating students by gender is the belief that boys and girls learn differently. This subject has been explored most extensively in the areas of math and science. According to an article published in Teaching Children Mathematics, even though progress has been made in women's participation in mathematics, a lack of gender equity in the field persists. Women still represent less than 15% of employed professionals in computer science, geology, mathematics, engineering, environmental science, agricultural science, chemistry, physics, astronomy, and economics (NSF, 1996). Female high school students also continue to score lower than their male peers on the math portion of the SAT, though the gap has narrowed over time.

Early classroom interventions based on beliefs about gender differences tended to focus on attributes that girls and women were assumed to share, and attempted to change those attributes to fit profiles associated with academic success (Becker, 2003). There were also feminist models that defined gender as a social construct and attributed differences in achievement to socialization rather than biological differences (Becker, 2003). The author notes that when explaining gender differences it is important to avoid framing female attributes as weaknesses or deficits — the differences in the ways males and females learn are not disabilities.

While some earlier research suggested there were no biological causes for gender differences in learning, contemporary research indicates that such differences can be attributed to distinctions between the male and female brain. According to Depape (2006), these differences are observable during pregnancy, as the brain undergoes lasting changes in the womb. Male and female brains are also composed of different chemicals that affect learning (Achiron, Lipitz, & Achiron, 2000; Depape, 2006). Furthermore, the two hemispheres of the brain differ by gender: in males, the left hemisphere is more developed than the right, while in females the two hemispheres are nearly equal in size (Sax, 2004). The brains of males and females also differ in the balance of white and gray matter — female brains contain more gray matter and less white matter, while males show the reverse (Sax, 2004).

In addition to these structural differences, research suggests that males and females differ in how they listen, read, process information, and respond to situations (Sax, 2004). Hormonal, structural, chemical, and practical differences in the brains of men and women are well documented (Gurian, 2001). These differences provide a substantial rationale for the implementation of gender-specific classrooms, and many experts believe that separating students by gender in educational settings could lead to higher academic performance for both males and females (Depape, 2006).

Becker (2003) points out that conventional approaches to teaching math — "stressing certainty, a single correct answer, deduction, logic, argumentation, algorithms, structure, and formality" — may be particularly incompatible with the ways in which many females learn (Becker, 1995; Belenky et al., 1997). Research by Belenky et al. (1997) found that differences in learning styles may be the determining factor in why women avoid careers in mathematics and science.

Belenky et al. (1997) developed a theoretical model called Women's Ways of Knowing, which describes five epistemological positions through which women construct knowledge:

Silence: Knowledge is not actively articulated. The learner accepts the instructor's judgment as factual without engaging in critical reflection (Belenky et al., 1997).

Received knowing: The learner acquires knowledge through listening and reproduces what was heard. Understanding is contingent on an external source, and the learner is satisfied to accept the information given. For example, "when asked why one inverts and multiplies to divide fractions, a learner in this perspective might say, 'Because my teacher told me to do it that way'" (Belenky et al., 1997).

Subjective knowing: Knowledge is derived from personal experience. The learner relies on what feels or appears correct, rather than on what an external source dictates (Belenky et al., 1997).

Procedural knowing: Involves reasoning and the evaluation of valid arguments (Belenky et al., 1997).

Constructed knowing: The learner integrates intuitive knowledge with experiential learning and the knowledge of others. This perspective values the complexity of knowledge and the significance of context (Belenky et al., 1997).

Becker (2003) further explains that Belenky and colleagues identified a gender difference within this framework: "Men seem to favor logic, argumentation, and rigor to evaluate validity, or separate knowing (Perry, 1970), whereas women are more likely to use conjecture and their own and others' experience and knowledge, or connected knowing. Authority comes from these shared experiences."

Other research has also documented gender differences in learning styles. According to the article "Do Gender-Specific Classrooms Increase the Success of Students?" (Depape, 2006), academic performance often suffers because educators are unaware of the varied learning styles of their students. Differences in learning styles between the genders can be attributed to physiological factors including higher-level cortical functions and hearing abilities (Sax, 2004). In 1959, Dr. John Corso found that girls hear, on average, two to four times as well as boys (Corso, 1959). If a teacher speaks quietly, boys throughout the classroom may be unable to hear, leading to off-task behavior. In a male-only classroom, teachers may use a louder voice and a more assertive approach (Depape, 2006). Conversely, female students may be distracted if a teacher's voice is too loud.

Another difference involves deductive versus inductive reasoning (Depape, 2006). Male conceptualization tends toward deductive reasoning, while females more commonly use inductive reasoning (Gurian, 2001). This difference helps explain why males tend to perform better on multiple-choice questions while females tend to excel on written exams or essays (Depape, 2006). Boys also demonstrate a higher aptitude for abstract reasoning and tend to learn more effectively from chalkboard instruction, while females prefer instruction that uses manipulatives and concrete objects (Depape, 2006).

Males and females also differ in how they work in groups. Gurian (2001) found that females gravitated toward loosely structured groups, while males tended to form highly organized ones (Depape, 2006). In gender-based classrooms, instructors have the flexibility to adapt their teaching styles to the preferences of their students.