Reducing Truancy in Public Charter Schools: Policies That Work

Introduction: The Truancy Problem and School Context

Student truancy is a growing problem in the United States. Over the last twenty years, truancy rates have grown nationwide, with the highest rates found in inner cities (Jacob & Lovett, 2017). Research indicates that student truancy leads to potential socially deviant behavior in adulthood (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017). Many students who are absent for prolonged periods are more likely to perform poorly academically, risking failure in classes and facing disciplinary action. Characteristics of schools with high truancy rates include reliance on only punitive truancy programs, lack of alternative study options for suspended students, and lack of counseling and tutoring (Bye, 2010). There are schools, however, that have been successful in maintaining low truancy rates. Those schools give students the option for tutoring, allow distance learning for suspended students, and employ a mixture of punitive and non-punitive measures (Duarte & Hatch, 2014).

With a national ranking of 764 and a Florida ranking of 66, Charter Secondary School is considered one of the best high schools in the state regarding student attendance rates and overall school participation (Great Schools!, 2017). The school has low truancy among minority students — a notable and distinctive quality that makes it an anomaly in the surrounding area (Great Schools!, 2017). First established in 2005, Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores is a public charter school built on the Barry University campus, sitting on five acres of property (Great Schools!, 2017). It is located in Miami Shores, Florida. Current enrollment stands at 599 students, and the campus type is suburban (Great Schools!, 2017). Rated 'A' as a college preparatory school, the school holds a municipal charter via the Village of Miami Shores and serves students in grades 6–12 (Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores, 2007).

In its early history, Charter Secondary School was originally a middle school established in 1997 under the name Miami Shores/Barry University Charter School (Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores, 2007). Nine portable structures comprised the school, which served as an alternative for Miami Shores students who would otherwise attend Horace Mann Middle School (Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores, 2007). After eight years, the school secured more funding and in 2005 was renamed. The school gained a permanent structure thanks to donations from the citizens of Miami Shores and additional funds from the North Dade Medical Foundation.

The school draws funds from two separate streams. One part of the funding comes from a bond issue approved by Village residents and a large two-year grant given by the North Dade Medical Foundation for fiscal years 2006 and 2007. The school raises the remainder of its operating expenses from the state through FTE funding (a set amount for each student in the classroom per day) and through the collection of student fees for materials and trips (Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores, 2007).

The school has 31 full-time teachers for a student population of 598 students, reflecting a ratio of fewer than 20 students per teacher (19:1) (USNEWS, 2017). The percentage of economically disadvantaged students is 33%, with minority enrollment at 83%. Although class attendance is high and 81% of students tested for AP exams, only 47% — fewer than half — passed those exams. English and Mathematics proficiency levels are 70% and 68% respectively, both above the district and national averages (USNEWS, 2017). With a College Readiness Index of 48.8, the school still has room for improvement.

While students earn average test scores overall, students who attend this school perform better than students at other schools in the same district (USNEWS, 2017). The district average for English proficiency is 50% and for Mathematics proficiency is 37%. The district average for college readiness is 44.7. This data represents assessments conducted at 113 schools serving 113,242 students (USNEWS, 2017). With a graduation rate of 98%, Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores presents a case worthy of further study.

There are several reasons for truancy, and they are often complex and varied. Research on truancy suggests that a negative school environment, student behavior, family economic status, and mental health problems are key contributors (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017; Dembo, Wareham, Schmeidler, Briones-Robinson, & Winters, 2014). A negative school environment can create problems for students wishing to learn. Schools in Miami often have large classrooms, making it difficult for students to focus and receive the individualized attention necessary for understanding the curriculum (Losen, 2015). If a student has questions or needs additional examples for a specific assignment, the teacher may not have the time or patience to address that student when managing 29 other students who all need the same level of attention.

Many schools across the country have strict policies regarding disruptive student behavior that can result in suspension or expulsion. Several factors can cause disruptive behavior among students (Losen, 2015). One common reason is poverty. "High levels of poverty have a negative effect on school behavior. This is attributed largely to the chronic and acute stress experienced by students living in poverty. The exposure is associated with externalizing behaviors that are disruptive in school settings" (Hutcheson, 2014, p. 1). Students facing poverty may be part of an unstable household, endure problematic or abusive parents, and lack access to basic resources. These students need opportunities to learn from their mistakes and receive help that could make a positive difference in their lives. Instead, they are often suspended or expelled and not given a chance to improve. High rates of suspension can contribute to higher rates of truancy.

"The bifactor structure reflected a general factor of Problems in Behavioral Engagement and two group factors: Problems in Social Engagement and Problems in Academic Engagement" (Barghaus et al., 2016, p. 154). Researchers note that students often may not have problems academically but instead socially — they may not feel comfortable engaging with other students due to fear of judgment or an inability to socialize properly. Providing students with tools to engage both socially and academically can allow for a higher percentage of positive academic outcomes. Student interest may also play a key role in truancy (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017), since suspensions and expulsions may impact student interest negatively. When students receive suspensions, they have no access to schoolwork, and when the suspension ends they may face increased difficulty catching up (Reid, 2014).

If there is no option to complete schoolwork while out of school, students face an automatic disadvantage — particularly if they are already struggling academically (Reid, 2014). To fall further behind when a student has already experienced low grades can set that student back and may ultimately lead to class failures (Reid, 2014). By exploring incentive theory of motivation and research showing the connection between expulsion/suspension, interest, and truancy, the hope is to clarify why truancy rates are high and what can be done to counteract the problem. These issues — negative school environment, student behavior, family economic status, and mental health problems — must all be addressed for truancy programs to be effective (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017; Dembo, Wareham, Schmeidler, Briones-Robinson, & Winters, 2014).

Truancy rates in the United States are a growing problem (Monahan, VanDerhei, Bechtold, & Cauffman, 2014). Whether a student is absent due to a suspension or because they willingly choose to be absent, the problem has become worthy of research and possible intervention. The problem addressed by this study is that educational leaders may have implemented policies and procedures in public charter schools, but documentation about which are most effective — and why — is largely absent.

Current policies have enabled higher truancy rates due to their zero-tolerance approach, which enables harsher punishment of student behavior. "Since the 1990s, implementation of zero tolerance policies in schools has led to increased use of school suspension and expulsion as disciplinary techniques for students with varying degrees of infractions" (Monahan, VanDerhei, Bechtold, & Cauffman, 2014, p. 1110). When students are suspended or expelled for their behavior, they may have a more difficult time catching up academically, which can lead to further problems as students mature.

Research suggests the experience of suspension or expulsion could lead to illegal behavior associated with a criminal record. "Being suspended or expelled from school increased the likelihood of arrest in that same month, and this effect was stronger among youth who did not have a history of behavior problems and when youth associated with less delinquent peers" (Monahan, VanDerhei, Bechtold, & Cauffman, 2014, p. 1110). When schools expel and suspend students, school leaders add to the truancy rates of the school. The zero tolerance policies of schools have become the main cause for concern in growing cases of suspension and expulsion because they are considered purely punitive measures (Schargel, 2014). Therefore, policies need to change to address this problem. To do so, one must examine schools like Charter Secondary School to determine what steps lead to positive change. Although truancy does not directly cause crime, it often has a high correlation with it (Schargel, 2014).

The purpose of the study is to understand school leaders' perspectives about how policies and procedures reduce truancy and improve student attendance. By interviewing key staff at Charter Secondary School — a public charter school with low truancy levels — information on effective policies and procedures can be gathered. These findings may provide a better understanding of what school leaders in other schools can do to improve truancy rates.

Attendance plays a large part in academic performance and in avoiding suspension (Schargel, 2014). Research on truancy reduction suggests that students with more attendance options may be able to overcome difficulties that contribute to truancy (Reid, 2014). Effective school policies that improve attendance may contain processes and options that provide such support and variability. Without understanding such aspects, little guidance can be generated and implemented to help students in need.

This area of research will be explored in the interview section and results. Charter Secondary School has better attendance and better academic performance compared to all other schools in the district on average. Furthermore, most of the students are minority or non-white. This school is a strong starting point for investigation into effective school policies. Examination of this successful school should provide a measure of effectiveness needed to better understand what strategies can improve attendance, and how other schools handle factors like a minority majority and school location — whether urban, rural, or suburban.

1. Why does Charter Secondary School (DCS) have a low truancy rate?

2. What theoretical framework serves as the foundation for policies at DCS?

The study is qualitative and focuses on the use of interviews to collect data. "The interview has today become one of the most widespread knowledge-producing practices across the human and social sciences in general and in critical psychology more specifically" (Brinkmann, 2014, p. 1008). Interviews can range from formal to informal, and can be conducted face-to-face, over the phone, or over the internet. Formal interviews have a fixed structure in which the researcher asks questions and the participant answers. In informal interviews, discussion is more open and does not need to adhere strictly to prepared questions (Brinkmann, 2014). Most qualitative interviews have some structure and are labeled "semi-structured." "In a semi-structured interview, the researcher provides some structure based on her research interests and interview guide but works flexibly with the guide and allows room for the respondent's more spontaneous descriptions and narratives" (Brinkmann, 2014, p. 1008).

There is a need to understand, from the perspectives of staff and school leaders who work at Charter Secondary School, what improvements have been made and what kind of school environment current policies promote. This can give a clear picture of what is being done to achieve positive outcomes for the student population. Similar studies using interviews have gathered significant insightful information that allows for answering important questions (De Witte & Csillag, 2012).

"Using fixed effects regressions and controlling for truancy peer group effects, we observe that truancy (measured as both a discrete dummy variable and a continuous count measure) positively correlates to early school leaving. A truant has a 3.4 percentage points higher risk of leaving school without a qualification" (De Witte & Csillag, 2012, p. 549).

The policies surrounding truancy programs and how academic staff respond to them allow for themes discovered through the interview process to be compared with themes found in the literature review, in order to determine whether a universal concept is being applied that leads to successful academic performance and good attendance records. It is important to allow students and staff to give their opinions and to enable discussion of what shaped those opinions. This will allow for easier analysis of responses.

Truancy is a complex problem, which allows for focus on the various narratives incorporated in attempts to understand and resolve it. Many different avenues point to potential solutions, but experience determines whether outcomes are negative or positive. Therefore, the school leaders' vision of the selected school and of successful truancy programs will provide a scope for what may be valuable towards reducing student truancy rates. Within the conceptual framework lies the theoretical framework, encompassing incentive and motivation theory and family systems theory.

An important theory explored in this study is the incentive theory of motivation. "People are pulled towards behaviors that offer positive incentives and pushed away from behaviors associated with negative incentives. The incentive theory suggests that people are motivated to do things because of external rewards" (Rehman & Haider, 2013, p. 141). If students are incentivized to attend class by receiving a reward, this may be a crucial element missing in schools with high truancy rates, and may explain the downward spiral of some students when they are severely punished for being absent.

Family systems theory is a systems-level theory that allows exploration of a person's life through the context of the family and views the individual's family as an emotional unit contributing to the person's emotional wellbeing (Breda, 2014). Introduced by psychiatrist Murray Bowen, the theory posits that families exist as interdependent and interconnected individuals who cannot be understood in isolation from the system (Breda, 2014). In the case of truancy, if a student is performing poorly in school and becomes absent, this could be due to family responsibilities at home — such as taking a job to help support the family or caring for an ill parent. Family systems theory allows for identification of potential connections within the family that could be causing stress for the student and leading to truant behavior.

The main assumption guiding this study is that effective truancy policies and procedures are the cornerstone of truancy reduction. Other assumptions include the notion that higher rates of truancy lead to poorer academic performance. When students voluntarily fail to attend class, they put themselves at greater risk of performing poorly in school — due to their inability to keep up and a lack of motivation to complete assignments (Rollnick, 2016). They may be unwilling to attend school due to mental health problems, an unstable home life, or physical health conditions. Another assumption is that students living in poverty and minority students may have a more difficult time in school due to a turbulent home life and the effects of institutionalized racism. Although this topic will not be covered in depth in this paper, it is important to recognize the difficulties that stem from lack of resources and potentially being part of a minority group, and to consider how those factors could affect truancy rates. Acknowledging this could lead to the creation and implementation of even more effective school policies that ultimately reduce truancy rates and sustain them at low levels.

The study will be limited to one public charter school in order to understand how that school maintains a lower truancy rate. Another limitation is the number of people available to interview. Because the interviews are qualitative and in-person, not many participants can be or will be available. The study is also limited to schools within the United States, and the literature review will examine only how American schools handle truancy and which policies either decrease or increase truancy rates. A final limitation concerns parents — although parental opinions may be helpful, it would be preferable to limit interviews to students and staff, with parents providing permission for their child to speak. No other limitations are noted.

The study is qualitative and will use interviews with school staff to collect data. Interview transcripts will be analyzed to identify underlying themes from respondents at Charter Secondary School. By asking structured questions, the hope is to understand what effective policies are in place that allow for better attendance rates than other schools in the district. Notably, the school also fares better on academic scores and has a high graduation rate. If location plays a part — it is in a suburban area — this should be explored through the interview questions to gain a fuller understanding of all aspects of effective policy within the school.

The literature review provides a foundation; the interviews provide the data. In addition to guiding some of the interview questions, the literature review will serve as a comparative guide against which the data gathered from the interviews can be assessed. If other successful schools have similar policies in place, this could serve as a potential standard applicable nationally to help decrease truancy across all schools. The literature review will also provide examples of policies in schools with high truancy rates, to illustrate what should not be done. Results will also be discussed within the context of potential modifications that could further improve attendance rates and academic success.

Ultimately, it is important to acknowledge what Charter Secondary School has to offer and see whether it can serve as a gauge for other schools in the district — and perhaps in the country. Although the qualitative study is small, including only six students and four staff members, it may provide the kind of insight that cannot be gathered elsewhere. Use of databases highlighting nationwide truancy rates may also be employed as a comparative tool.

Literature Review: Understanding and Addressing Truancy

Student truancy has become a major issue that schools try to tackle (Rollnick, 2016). To improve truancy, there is a need to research and cultivate worthwhile strategies to reduce the negative behaviors that lead to it. However, there is also a need to understand why students are truant in the first place. Poverty and negative school environments have raised concern for the likelihood of truancy in students (Reid, 2014). It can be difficult to identify the costs and benefits of various measures. Those who favor punitive discipline believe that adherence to rules leads to positive outcomes (Rollnick, 2016). Those who favor non-punitive discipline argue that giving students options can lead to better results — not just in truancy rates, but in the personal growth of the student (Rollnick, 2016). With all the strategies and methods available, it can be difficult for school leaders to determine what mixture of punitive and non-punitive discipline will work. The goal is to demonstrate the success of programs and schools that have reduced truancy rates, as well as to identify policies that increase truancy rates, in order to show how student truancy can be improved.

Aside from strengthening community connections, another way schools can decrease truancy rates is through truancy reporting. Truancy reporting allows students to be assessed to determine whether they are at high risk (De Witte & Csillag, 2012). Because truancy can have a profoundly negative long-term effect on students, schools have begun adopting more stringent truancy reporting practices. "A truant has a 3.4 percentage points higher risk of leaving school without a qualification" (De Witte & Csillag, 2012, p. 549).

Researchers note that truancy reporting allows for better assessment of at-risk youth and can provide a means of identifying potential problems with students early on (De Witte & Csillag, 2012), making it a preventative measure with positive effects. "If students are better monitored with respect to truancy, schools can identify more easily students at risk. The results indicate that improved truancy reporting significantly reduces school dropout by 5 percentage points" (De Witte & Csillag, 2012, p. 549).

To jumpstart the process of helping students, schools must figure out ways to help them connect to their community. Schools like the one used for this study already have in place a robust truancy reporting protocol, under which students cannot be absent more than a few days before the school contacts the student's household (De Witte & Csillag, 2012).

More research should be dedicated to how preventative measures can expand to include other indicators of at-risk behavior, such as lateness for class and missed homework assignments (Reid, 2017). Applying research to practice is popular in healthcare — perhaps it can also become popular in education as more information emerges on high-priority topics like student truancy (Reid, 2017).

Punitive and Non-Punitive Truancy Programs

Punitive measures for truancy can be seen through the introduction of third-party policing in schools. "Third-party policing is an approach to crime prevention and control involving the police partnering with organizations or individuals to prevent or reduce crime problems" (Nitschke, Mazerolle, & Bennett, 2014, p. 5211). By relying on criminal, regulatory, or civil legal mechanisms to hold third parties partly accountable for controlling crime, this approach creates an environment where apprehension of problem students is feasible (Nitschke, Mazerolle, & Bennett, 2014). While this may help schools deal with growing student delinquency, it may also make it easier for students to become part of the criminal justice system at an early age.

Punitive measures can also be costlier in the long run (Nitschke, Mazerolle, & Bennett, 2014). Punitive measures such as expulsion or suspension can further increase the likelihood of students being truant and performing poorly academically (Shelton, 2014). Students must be guided toward positive outcomes, and this means reducing the assumption that punitive measures will keep students from being truant. Although short-term results may indicate some reduction, the long-term effects could be more negative and lasting (Shelton, 2014). Shelton noted that students who face punitive measures may have a higher chance of committing crimes compared to those who experienced non-punitive measures.

While some research suggests that police intervention regarding truancy can help increase parental awareness, there are still many factors to consider in terms of efficacy. Police intervention may increase parental awareness but also raises the potential for truant students to end up in the juvenile criminal justice system (Mazerolle, Bennett, Antrobus, & Eggins, 2017). A mixture of both punitive and non-punitive measures may be most beneficial in tackling the problem of truancy.

Punitive measures for truancy have their place in schools. However, research shows non-punitive measures are also useful and offer students a chance to improve and shed some of the stigma attached to past mistakes (Reid, 2017). Successful protocols integrate flexibility into standard methods to help the school, the family, and the student. Such programs understand individual students' needs and do whatever is necessary to assist the families and students involved in truancy (Mallett, 2015).

One study in Australia aimed to understand truancy and its effects in order to generate effective programs for reducing truancy rates among students (Taylor, Gray, & Stanton, 2016). This shows that with proper research, non-punitive options are feasible — but they must be developed in conjunction with significant research that provides a better understanding of the needs of students who participate in truancy (Mallett, 2015). While non-punitive measures are generally expected to be more effective than punitive measures, if there is no significant difference in outcomes, non-punitive measures must be assessed for efficacy. Haight, Chapman, Hendron, Loftis, & Kearney (2014) demonstrated how a non-punitive truancy program may not work if a key component is absent — specifically, if there is no skill-building element such as tutoring, the chance for truancy to decrease is diminished.

Conclusion and Significance of the Study

In conclusion, truancy rates are a growing problem in United States schools. Charter Secondary School is one school that aims to reduce truancy rates and has done so according to recent statistics. By exploring Charter Secondary School's policies and other school policies that either increase or decrease truancy rates in Florida, the study hopes to understand what may cause truancy and what reduces it. If better and improved handling of student issues is the solution, it needs to be thoroughly explored.

The literature review revealed that motivation is difficult to increase in students who are truant. There are many reasons why students are truant — some stem from mental health problems like depression; others stem from academic disparities and poor academic performance. A simple measure like discipline tracking may be partially effective, but it does not address the multifaceted nature of truancy. Truancy itself is often just a symptom of a deeper underlying problem. By simply punishing the truant student or applying a single simple solution, schools are not addressing the root causes properly.

Attachment is another part of the comprehensive solution to decrease truancy and increase motivation. Attachment to teachers, to family, and to the community can inspire students to work toward their goals because they will feel invested. Skill-building, as another important component, allows students to gain confidence in themselves. If students improve academically, they will be more likely to develop the desire to succeed and less likely to skip school.

The study can be an important step in learning what works for schools aimed at reducing truancy and what does not. Findings may lead to this school and others standardizing effective programs and policies. Public schools across the United States need access to the knowledge that certain policy implementations work and are worth the time, money, and effort. Like evidence-based practice in nursing, staff need to see evidence of policies that have already been implemented and have led to student success and improved attendance rates.

While statistics from a successful school like Charter Secondary School are helpful, it is even more significant when other schools can see the specific steps it took to reach that level of success. That collected information can then be compared across schools to identify the core principles and actions that produced such positive results. Growth and positive outcomes can only come from tested and proven practices.

Studies like this one also offer an anchor point for investigating other aspects of school life, school environment, and student behavioral problems. If students have problems due to struggles with sexuality, gender identity, or political affiliation, these could also be investigated in future studies, with results used to spearhead policy changes that lead to continued progression toward a safe and positive school environment.

There are several reasons for truancy and they are often complex and varied. To better understand why Charter Secondary School has a low truancy rate and what strategies school leaders deem effective, a qualitative case study will be used to collect the necessary data and answer the research questions. The case study will examine the perceptions of eight school leaders as to why Charter Secondary School does not have an attendance issue. In the next chapter, the researcher will discuss the findings of this study.