Globalization and Terrorism: Causes, Trends, and Solutions

Introduction

Terrorism has been a serious global concern for decades, with researchers now warning that globalization has played a significant role in fueling terrorist activities in recent years. This report examines the impact of globalization on terrorism. It begins with a definition of terrorism, its drivers, and reasons for its increased incidence.

The September 11, 2001 attacks remain one of the darkest days in American history. On that day, two commercial passenger jets were hijacked by suicide bombers and flown into the World Trade Center in New York, killing thousands of innocent civilians. Multiple attacks of a similar nature have occurred in different countries across the world, with the most notable being the bombing of American embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998, and more recently, the killing of 130 innocent civilians in a series of coordinated attacks in Paris in November 2015. These attacks have aroused widespread indignation and prompted nations to coordinate efforts against not only the perpetrators and sponsors of such activities, but against international terrorism as a whole. The success of these efforts depends on how well the nations of the world understand the concept of terrorism, its motivations, and the trends in terrorist activities.

A substantial body of research has already been conducted in these specific areas. This report brings together findings from a set of selected studies to provide insight on the impact of globalization on terrorism. It examines the definition of terrorism, its causes and drivers, its evolution and trends, and ways through which it could be addressed.

What Is Terrorism?

There is currently no standard definition for the term "terrorism" (Cronin, 2003; Guillaume, 2004). The difficulty in developing a standard definition arises in part because terrorist activities, and their drivers and motivations, keep evolving (Cronin, 2003). Researchers, however, concur that acts of terror usually share a set of common characteristics that, when considered together, provide a working definition of what terrorism is.

These characteristics are: (a) the acts are political in nature; (b) the perpetrators use violence against seemingly innocent actors; (c) the acts are aimed at causing death or severe physical injury; (d) the perpetrator's primary objective is to create terror among members of the target group; and (e) the acts are planned and executed in a coordinated, organized manner by either an individual or a collective group of individuals (Cronin, 2003, p. 33; Guillaume, 2004, p. 540).

Based on these characteristics, terrorism can be defined as the use of random violence against innocents with the aim of causing terror and achieving a predetermined political goal. When such an act involves institutions, victims, targets, or perpetrators from another country, it is referred to as transnational terrorism (Li & Schaub, 2004, p. 231). The 9/11 attacks on the Pentagon and the World Trade Center are a prominent example of a transnational terrorist event (Li & Schaub, 2004, p. 231).

Drivers of Terrorism

Researchers have sought to understand the specific factors that drive terrorism — that is, those factors that motivate terrorists to commit acts of terror. According to Cronin (2003), terrorist groups have different sources of motivation — economic, religious, or political — and it is these motivations that determine how they are categorized and how they execute their operations. Cronin identifies four different types of terrorists with different sources of motivation: right-wing terrorists, left-wing terrorists, ethno-nationalist terrorists, and religious terrorists. It is worth noting that these categories are not rigid, as most terrorist groups are driven by multiple motivating ideologies; however, one motivation typically dominates (Cronin, 2003, p. 39).

Left-wing terrorists are driven by idealist or liberal political concepts and often prefer anti-materialistic, antiauthoritarian, and revolutionary agendas (Cronin, 2003, p. 40). They tend to engage in criminal behavior such as arson, bombing, murder, and kidnapping directed at elite targets (Cronin, 2003, p. 40). Their primary aim is to overthrow capitalist democracies and replace them with communist or socialist governments (Grothaus, 2011). Examples of left-wing terrorist groups include the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), the 17 November group in Greece, and the Revolutionary People's Liberation Party-Front in Turkey (Grothaus, 2011).

Right-wing terrorist groups are more impetuous and less cohesive than their left-wing counterparts (Cronin, 2003, p. 40). Their primary aim is to preserve traditional societies and resist liberal governments (Grothaus, 2011). They are often racially motivated, with targets largely determined by race, and they seek to marginalize minorities within a region (Grothaus, 2011; Cronin, 2003). The Ku Klux Klan is a prominent example of a right-wing terrorist group (Grothaus, 2011).

Separatist and ethno-nationalist terrorists are usually driven by clear territorial or political aims (Cronin, 2003, p. 40). Their focus is typically on establishing an ethnic identity or controlling a specific piece of land or territory (Cronin, 2003).

Finally, there are religious terrorists, motivated by religious grievances and ideologies (Grothaus, 2011). These terrorists are particularly dangerous because they often perceive themselves as engaged in a struggle of good versus evil, leading them to develop an expansive set of targets that includes anyone who is not a member of their religion or sect (Cronin, 2003, p. 41). Non-members are considered evil, apostates, or infidels and are often punished brutally. As Cronin (2003, p. 41) points out, the Al-Qaeda operatives who carried out the 9/11 attacks may have viewed the Muslims killed in those attacks in precisely this manner. Religious terrorists are often willing to sacrifice themselves for their cause (Grothaus, 2011). Al-Qaeda, Boko Haram, Al-Shabab, and the Taliban are prominent examples of religiously motivated terrorist groups.

Terrorism and Globalization

Existing literature reflects a broad consensus that globalization has had a measurable effect on terrorism (Cronin, 2003, p. 48; Todd, 2007, p. 2; Li & Schaub, 2004). The removal of barriers and border restrictions through such blocs as the European Union and the North American Free Trade Area (NAFTA) has facilitated the movement of terrorist group members across countries (Cronin, 2003, p. 48). As a result, groups such as Al-Qaeda and Hezbollah have been able to expand their reach and establish cells in multiple countries throughout the world (Todd, 2007; Cronin, 2003).

Todd (2007) explains how the elimination of trade barriers along the U.S.–Canada border, intended to increase commerce between the two countries, has simultaneously facilitated the infiltration of terrorist groups. The author documents numerous instances in which terrorists have exploited weaknesses in border security systems to enter the United States. In 1999, for instance, Ahmed Ressam, an Al-Qaeda-affiliated terrorist, was arrested attempting to cross into the United States through the U.S.–Canada border while carrying bomb-making materials intended for an attack on American soil (Todd, 2007, p. 4). It has since been confirmed that the perpetrators of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing had entered the country through the same border and had planned to use it as their escape route (Todd, 2007, p. 4).

Terrorist organizations have taken advantage of globalization and the increasingly open relationships between countries to expand their international operations and unleash transnational terror (Shola, 2015). The increased permeability of the international system has enhanced the ability of terrorist organizations to connect with and support other groups in other countries, thereby establishing a global network (Cronin, 2003, p. 48). Boko Haram in Nigeria provides a compelling illustration of this dynamic (Shola, 2015). The group began as a domestic terrorist organization operating solely within Nigeria; it has since grown into one of the largest international terrorist organizations of the 21st century (Shola, 2015). The group expanded beyond domestic terrorism by connecting with established terrorist organizations in other countries, such as Al-Shabab in Somalia and Al-Qaeda in the Middle East (Shola, 2015). Reports indicate that Boko Haram works in coordination with Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, which is headquartered in Algeria, with the former receiving training and material support from the latter (Shola, 2015). Just as business has been globalized, terrorist groups have globalized their operations, with most functioning within an interconnected transnational network (Shola, 2015).

Globalization also fosters terrorist activity by making it easier for terrorists to evade capture and prosecution (Cronin, 2003, p. 49). Because states have varying laws governing terrorism and terrorist activities, the prosecution of transnational terrorists presents significant legal and jurisdictional challenges (Cronin, 2003, p. 49).

Other researchers have, however, challenged the notion that globalization and economic integration increase global terrorism. Li and Schaub (2004, p. 248), for instance, found no support for the argument that globalization and economic integration increase the incidence of terrorism within a country's borders — their results were statistically insignificant. On the contrary, the researchers demonstrated that economic integration actually reduces the incidence of transnational terrorism. In their view, integration promotes economic development in a country's trading partners, thereby reducing the incentive for foreign nationals from those countries to commit attacks (Li & Schaub, 2004, p. 248).

Conclusion

Terrorism has been a serious social concern for the international community over the last few decades. It is widely believed that globalization has aggravated the situation by making it easier for terrorist groups to cross borders and establish operations in multiple countries across the world. Research has, however, shown that the relationship between globalization and the increased incidence of terrorism is more nuanced than is often assumed. Studies have, in fact, demonstrated that globalization and economic integration may serve as a partial solution to the problem of global terrorism, as they reduce the incentive for citizens of foreign countries to attack their trading partners.

Methodology: This report relied on secondary sources, particularly scholarly articles addressing the issue of terrorism. Eight articles were selected for review based on their clarity and depth of analysis. The information drawn from these sources was synthesized and presented in the report above.

Key findings:

(i) There is no universally accepted standard definition of terrorism. (ii) The relationship between globalization and the increased incidence of terrorism is weaker than commonly assumed. (iii) Globalization and economic integration may serve as a partial remedy to global terrorism.

References

Cronin, A. K. (2003). Behind the curve: Globalization and international terrorism. International Security, 27(3), 30–58.

Gomez, J. M. (2010). A financial profile of the terrorism of Al-Qaeda and its affiliates. Perspectives on Terrorism, 4(4).

Grothaus, N. (2011). Types of terrorism. Hand of Reason. Retrieved February 5, 2016, from http://handofreason.com/2011/featured/types-of-terrorism

Guillaume, G. (2004). Terrorism and international law. International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 53(1), 537–548.

Li, Q., & Schaub, D. (2004). Economic globalization and transnational terrorism: A pooled time-series analysis. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 48(2), 230–258.

Shola, O. J. (2015). Globalization of terrorism: A case study of Boko Haram in Nigeria. International Journal of Politics and Good Governance, 6(6), 1–22.

Todd, H. (2007). Catastrophic terrorism at the border: The case of the Canada–United States border. The Naval Postgraduate School. Retrieved February 5, 2016, from http://calhoun.nps.edu/bitstream/handle/10945/25101/84.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y

Wanandi, J. (2002). A global coalition against international terrorism. International Security, 26(4), 184–189.