Group Counseling to Boost Academic Achievement in Middle School

Introduction and Statement of the Problem

The problems and challenges that children in middle school encounter are numerous and must be taken into account by teachers, parents, and school counselors. Adolescents face challenges stemming from physical, intellectual, social, and emotional changes as they reach middle school age, and these issues can and do interfere with the learning process. For many public school professionals, there may be hurdles to overcome before understanding the best approach to help middle school students struggling with these issues — which in many cases can hamper their scholastic performance. This paper offers evidence through empirical studies and other research that bringing middle school children into group counseling can improve their chances of success. It also outlines the steps that group counselors take during their training, and the steps they must take to bring school administration, faculty, parents, and other stakeholders into agreement that group counseling is an important step in ensuring academic success for all students.

On a more philosophical level, the world that students are being brought up in today is dangerous, confusing, and in some cases difficult for adults to explain to children. Consulting psychologist James P. Trotzer — in his book The Counselor and the Group: Integrating Theory, Training, and Practice — wonders what the implications are for adolescents in this rapidly changing world of "expanded communication capabilities." Pre-teens and adolescents are facing choices "much earlier and in a more intense manner than ever before," Trotzer explains (p. 4).

The list of problems and social concerns that many students are bombarded with through media (Internet, mass media, movies, and magazines) and family mobility includes: "Wars, racism, sexism, terrorism, ageism, poverty, inflation, overpopulation, ecology, global warming, corruption, crime and disasters of human and natural causality, locally, nationally, or globally…" (Trotzer, 2006, p. 4). Given those realities, Trotzer asserts that students — more than ever before — need training in school to make good decisions and solve problems. The development of good decision-making skills — including "the processes of introspection, communication, and relationship formation" — are extremely vital for young people in such a rapidly changing world (p. 4). Given all the distractions and concerns in the world brought into students' lives through media, offering students an opportunity to keep their focus on the prize — academic success, which helps ensure a happy and successful future — through group counseling makes eminent sense. Especially for students who struggle, group counseling can serve as a lifeline to scholastic achievement.

The need to build a better academic foundation for middle school children as they work their way through 6th, 7th, and 8th grades on their path to high school is apparent, and even critical, in some middle schools in the U.S. Respected studies link the high school dropout rate to poor performance in middle school. In the national report "The Silent Epidemic: Perspectives of High School Dropouts," sponsored by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, it is reported that every year "almost one-third of all high school students — and nearly half of all Blacks, Hispanics, and Native Americans — fail to graduate from public high school with their class" (Bridgeland, et al., 2006, p. i).

In an elaborate survey that was part of the report, forty-five percent of participants said they started high school poorly prepared. Many of these same students said they "fell behind" in elementary and middle school "and could not make up the necessary ground," the report notes. Those students believed they might have succeeded in high school with tutoring or help after school — hence the vital need to give struggling middle school students the support they need through group counseling. Getting a good start in middle school is clearly part of the reason for later success in high school. Four out of five high school dropouts who participated in the Gates Foundation study said they might have stayed in school if they had been shown the "connection between school and getting a good job" (Bridgeland, p. iv).

Keeping middle school students up to par in their academic work, and showing them how to succeed with caring, competent group counseling leaders, could go a long way toward reducing high school dropout rates. Indeed, 70% of the dropout respondents in the Gates study said they believed that "more tutoring" — along with summer school classes and "extra time with teachers" — would have greatly improved their chances of finishing high school. Those who say they needed more tutoring in high school are quite likely to have also needed that extra support in middle school; this information verifies and justifies the need for high-quality group counseling opportunities in middle schools.

University of Michigan professor of psychology and education Jacquelynne S. Eccles writes that there is a predictable decline in "academic motivation, school engagement, and academic performance" as students move from elementary school into middle school (Eccles, 2008, p. 1). Declines occur in students' "interest and feelings of belonging in school," Eccles explains. There is also a decline in "valuing particular subjects such as math," and confidence in one's intellectual abilities fades for many students in middle school. Along with this lack of confidence comes "test anxiety and general academic worries," Eccles continues.

Are these declines related to puberty or to school engagement? Eccles suggests that school-related experiences are often part of the decline in academic motivation. "Teachers in intermediate schools are more focused on control and discipline" than on academics, according to Eccles. As a result, there is "less trust between students and teachers," and at the very pivotal time in their early adolescent experiences — when they "are confronted with uncertainty about themselves" — middle school students are "often met with distrust from the very people who could provide support for them" (Eccles, p. 2). A quality group counseling program led by a well-trained counselor who relates well to students can go a long way toward creating trust between students and teachers.

Because there are extraordinarily high dropout rates in American high schools, and given that the U.S. ranks quite low compared to foreign students in academic success rates, there is powerful justification for programs of positive intervention at the middle school level. Education writer Barbara Pytel claims that "by 6th grade the signs are often there for who is likely to drop out" (Pytel, 2008, p. 1). The signs — grades, behaviors, attendance, and tardiness — are "better predictors" of an adolescent's potential to fail than race, test scores, and socioeconomic status, Pytel asserts. She insists that "nearly half of dropouts can be identified in sixth grade," but "interventions in middle school can turn students around and reduce dropout numbers in high school" (p. 2).

Historical Background of Counseling in Schools

In 2007, the National Center for Educational Statistics (NAEP) indicated that just three out of ten 8th-grade students in the U.S. were "proficient in reading and math," Pytel explains. These statistics "loudly state that students entering high school" are simply not prepared. Moreover, U.S. students do not fare well on the international educational stage. At a time when globalization has brought much closer linkage between cultures, economies, and countries, American schoolchildren are lagging behind.

According to 2003 data from the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), in cooperation with the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 15-year-old American students ranked 24th out of 38 countries in science, 12th of 38 in reading, and 26th of 38 in "problem solving." The 2006 assessment was equally grim: of 57 countries worldwide, U.S. students ranked 35th in math and 29th in science. In PISA's 2009 reading results, U.S. students ranked 17th — behind Iceland, Poland, Switzerland, Estonia, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, Australia, Japan, New Zealand, Canada, Singapore, Hong Kong-China, Finland, Korea, and first-place Shanghai-China.

Given the problems associated with academics and with students dropping out of high school, there is strong justification for conducting research into the positive outcomes associated with group counseling in middle school.

Group counseling: Led by a professional counselor, a group of 5 to 7 students meet and learn strategies for success in academics. National Defense Education Act (NDEA): Federal legislation that made money available to schools for many services, including counseling. American School Counselor Association (ASCA): Develops standards for counseling services in public schools. Stakeholders: All those affected by the success or failure of schools. At-risk students: Students in danger of failing due to a number of reasons, including academic struggles. Positive self-talk: When a student has a strong self-concept or self-image. Service learning: Learning how to share information with others; for example, middle school students acquire service-learning skills and then share those skills by tutoring elementary students. Skill-Builders: A curriculum approach fostering self-confidence and new skills in students who lag behind. Self-disclosure: The degree to which a counselor reveals personal information to students — there are limits to how much a leader should disclose. Experiential involvement: Actual hands-on experience within the group process.

The history of group counseling cannot be traced precisely to any one era or place, because as Sally Barlow and colleagues point out, the "informal study of groups" has been occurring since humans began congregating together (Barlow, et al., 2004, p. 3). But the "written history of groups really only began at the fin-de-siècle of the 19th century," Barlow explains. Saying "group counseling" means many things to different people: psychotherapy is often applied in group counseling sessions, and medical self-help groups also meet in group counseling formats. The "comprehensive definition," according to Barlow, is that group therapy can be linked to "prevention, guidance, counseling, and training" (pp. 3–4).

To whom should credit be given for launching group counseling? Barlow suggests it was Sigmund Freud, who held now-famous "Wednesday night meetings" with his students in Vienna, Austria, for instruction relating to psychological issues. By 1932, group counseling in the psychological context had been named "Group Therapy," with contributions from social workers, school counseling, educational psychology, nursing, organizational behavior, and clinical psychology (Barlow, p. 5). By the 1980s it was clear that group treatments were "effective" for whatever the particular cause or problem. In the 1990s, serious research into the effectiveness of group therapy and group counseling continued, and "with few exceptions, the general conclusion to be drawn from an enormous number of studies…is that groups work" (Barlow, p. 10). Barlow's empirical research indicates that "the human group phenomena titled 'group counseling'…clearly has a set of recognizable factors (skilled leaders…defined goals, etc.) that create positive outcomes" (p. 18). Group counseling is "an intervention that can ameliorate many of these ills," she concludes.

The factors that led to the development of group counseling in schools "began in the 1890s with the social reform movement," according to J. Board (Board, 2008, p. 1). Social and political reformer Frank Parsons is credited by some as "the father of the vocational guidance movement." Parsons' work led to the creation of the Boston Vocation Bureau; by 1909 the bureau had launched a system of vocational guidance in the public schools of Boston. By 1918, Board continues, "there were documented accounts of the bureau's influence as far away as Uruguay and China."

Review of Literature: Parents, Counselors, and Group Counseling Outcomes

In the early 20th century, vocational guidance was the most practical help available to students, but as counseling advanced, "other personal concerns became part of the school counselor's agenda," Board explains. In the 1920s and 1930s, school counseling expanded well beyond vocational issues to include educational, social, and personal aspects of a student's life. After World War II, funds became available for school counseling, and Carl Rogers pointed the way to "nondirective" or "client-centered" counseling — which placed the client in control of the direction of the counseling (Board, p. 2). When the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) was passed in 1958, partly in response to the Soviet Union's launching of Sputnik, money was made available to local school districts, some of which was directed toward counseling and guidance.

Another milestone was C. Gilbert Wrenn's 1962 book The Counselor in a Changing World, which "brought to light the need for more cultural sensitivity on the part of school counselors." Other influences in the 1960s included Frederick Perls' gestalt therapy, Abraham Maslow and Rollo May's existential approach, William Glasser's reality therapy, and John Krumboltz's behavioral counseling approach (Board, p. 2). By the 1970s the school counselor position had become a standard part of school staff and programming. In the 1980s, training standards for school counseling were developed, and although school counseling was "ignored" during the school reform movement of the 1990s, the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) eventually developed national standards "clearly defining the roles and responsibilities of school counseling programs" (Board, p. 3).

Middle school counselors are trained to offer proactive leadership and support, "both personally and developmentally," that "engages all stakeholders in the delivery of programs and services to help students achieve success in school," according to the American School Counselor Association (ASCA). The ASCA asserts that middle school counselors should have a "mental health perspective" as they help students respond to the "challenges" in society and within their diverse campus communities. It is up to the middle school counselor to "design, develop," implement, and evaluate a "comprehensive, developmental and systemic school counseling program." This counseling program should be "results-based" and "data driven" and must relate to students at this sometimes difficult time in their lives.

Middle school students are going through a period of very rapid physical growth and are in search of an identity; hence the importance of the counselor's work. Professional middle school counselors are expected to assist students in their quest for "optimal personal growth," help them acquire "positive social skills and values," and guide them as they attempt to realize their "full academic potential" (ASCA). Given the serious economic downturns that have forced many school districts to lay off staff, the counselor faces considerable pressure, stress, and program challenges.

It is not a revelation to assert that parents in many instances hold the key to the success or failure of their children in public school. Dana Griffin and John P. Galassi have conducted research published in the journal Professional School Counseling focused on answering this question. Through qualitative analysis, the authors have identified six "common barrier themes" for both at-risk students and academically successful students (Griffin, et al., 2010, p. 1). "At-risk" in this context means the student has failed at least one class, has been referred due to behavioral issues, and may have been suspended as well.

Griffin reports that due to the emotional, physical, and intellectual changes that middle school students are experiencing, their approach to education is often disrupted or interrupted. Puberty can usher in a period of developmental changes resulting in "increased self-consciousness" (Griffin, p. 1). These changes can lead to depression, distress, and anxiety, causing some students to become alienated from family and peers and tempting them in some cases to engage in "high-risk behaviors" such as sexual activity and substance use. Academic performance can take a nosedive as a result — and those problems can be exacerbated for students in rural areas, where there are fewer support services available (Griffin, p. 1).

Research revealed by Griffin and Galassi shows that parental involvement has a "positive effect on a child's social and academic success" (p. 2). When parents are involved in their children's education, students have better attendance records, fewer behavioral problems, better grades in mathematics and English, and improved writing skills. More than one empirical research study shows that students achieve more, have a more positive attitude, and have a better sense of self-efficacy when their parents become partners in their learning processes. However, when students reach secondary school, parental involvement tends to taper off due to "lack of social networks for parents and lack of financial stability" (Griffin, p. 2). Parents who are themselves "less educated" also tend to back away because "they are not as knowledgeable about their child's curriculum in middle and high school" (p. 2). One study referenced by Griffin reveals that 60% of parents had never spoken to one of their child's teachers, and 35% had never had a conference with a teacher.

To understand what perceptions parents hold about the barriers to their children's academic success, Griffin and Galassi organized focus groups for parents of at-risk students and parents of academically successful students. Twenty-nine parents participated and were asked two questions: a) what are the barriers that prevent children from being academically successful in school? and b) what resources does the community offer to help parents overcome those barriers? Six themes emerged — the same for both groups of parents — covering: parent and family barriers; teacher and instructional barriers; parent-teacher interaction barriers; student barriers; school or educational system barriers; and perceived available resources for school success. Parents of at-risk students identified two additional themes: teacher-student interaction barriers and perceptions of what is needed to address those barriers (Griffin, p. 8).

The authors suggest that school counselors need to become more involved in "school-family-community collaborations," and that schools need to view parents "as experts on their children's needs" and as "agents to help promote academic achievement" (Griffin, p. 16). The counselor in middle school should take the initiative to bring parents and teachers together and put to use the school's most effective tools and strategies for supporting students.

Greg Brigman and Barbara Earley Goodman offer a practical guide to group counseling for adolescents in their book Group Counseling for School Counselors: A Practical Guide. Their review of "well-controlled research studies" shows that students who received group counseling in schools "were better off than 97 percent of comparison students" (Brigman, et al., 2001, p. vii). One study that reviewed thirty years of research on "the effect of school counselors on student achievement, behavior, and attitudes" found group counseling to be "effective" in every category. Another review covering fifty years of research showed that school success was most often associated with helping students learn social skills and cognitive/learning skills — precisely the skills associated with group counseling (Brigman, p. vii).

The role of leader in a group counseling environment is a "primary role" for the school counselor, according to the ASCA (Brigman, p. vii). If school counselors are not involved in working with groups, they "quickly become overwhelmed with individual counseling needs." Part of the middle school counselor's job is to promote as well as lead group counseling sessions. When addressing parent meetings such as PTA gatherings, the counselor must make presentations to generate excitement about academic possibilities. The important points the group counselor should make to parents include: tying the sessions to the "mission of the school"; tying them to the "most critical skills" students need for future success; linking them to "increased achievement and prosocial behavior"; and tying them to student needs clearly identified by teachers, parents, administrators, and students themselves (Brigman, p. viii).

Brigman explains that "most effective groups have a minimum of eight sessions" and the optimal session length (depending on student age) is between 30 and 60 minutes. A survey referenced by Brigman (Wilson, 1982) indicates that with eight or fewer sessions, the success rate for students in danger of failing is 1 out of 5. With 9 to 12 sessions, the success rate rises to 5 out of 9; and with more than 12 sessions, the rate reaches 6 out of 8 students, or 75% (p. viii). The ideal group size for an experienced counselor is 5 to 6 students, and no more than 7 or 8. For less experienced counselors, 4 to 5 students may be preferable.

The selection of students should be a careful, thoughtful process. Only those students whom the counselor feels "reasonably certain can be helped" — and who indicate a willingness to participate — should be invited into the group. The counselor should "avoid loading a group with behavior problems" and should conduct a pre-group screening that fully explains the substance and dynamics of the group to all potential participants. Every student recommended for group counseling should meet individually with the counselor beforehand, allowing the counselor to "gain commitment from the student regarding attendance, participation, and confidentiality" (Brigman, p. x).

Brigman describes three stages of the group counseling process. In Stage 1 (Trust and Orientation), students become familiar with one another and the counselor helps the group identify goals. In Stage 2 (Work and Productivity), goals are "acted on outside of the group" and "experimenting with behavior occurs inside the group" (Brigman, p. xi). By Stage 3 (Closure and Consolidation) — beginning around session seven of an eight-session program — there should be a sense of "sharing and caring" within the group. This is also the time for summarizing and solidifying study habit adjustments. Follow-up questions are essential for the counselor; for example: "What has been the most helpful part of this group for you?" and "How can you continue to practice what you have learned?"

Research by Debra S. Osborn and Robert C. Reardon demonstrates that counseling middle school students in a group format about potential future careers can help them see the importance of paying closer attention to academics (Osborn, et al., 2006, p. 269). Their study involved 98 middle school students — 95% of them African American — who were at risk of failing or dropping out. The research utilized the "Self-Directed Search: Career Explorer" (SDS:CE) questionnaire as a first step. Students were given the SDS:CE report to complete and were also allowed to use the Internet to explore career information sites such as the U.S. Department of Labor's Occupational Outlook Handbook. The girls (50 students) chose careers including teacher, lawyer, and singer, while the boys chose professional athlete, doctor, and lawyer (Osborn, p. 270).