This paper examines the rising dropout rate among minority middle school students, exploring the contributing factors of low literacy, poverty, low self-esteem, early pregnancy, and cultural disconnection from curriculum. Drawing on a review of professional literature published after 1993, the paper surveys evidence-based intervention programs — including Systematic Monitoring of Risk Factors, Check and Connect, Personal Growth Classes, and Wraparound services — and proposes a comprehensive, multi-component intervention grounded in Psychoeducational Theory. The proposed program integrates academic support, counseling, mentoring, community partnerships, and family engagement to reduce dropout rates and build self-esteem among at-risk minority students in grades six through eight.
The paper demonstrates a structured literature-review-to-intervention design, a common technique in applied education research. Rather than simply summarizing existing studies, the author extracts transferable program features (mentoring, psychoeducational counseling, flexible scheduling) and recombines them into a synthesized proposal. This technique shows how secondary research can inform practical program design, making it a useful model for education policy and social work papers.
The paper opens with an introduction establishing the problem, followed by a Statement of Significance that quantifies the issue with national data. A methodologically framed Review of Literature surveys specific intervention programs and their outcomes. The Intervention section translates those findings into a detailed proposed program covering staffing, mentoring, family services, and evaluation metrics. The Discussion addresses implementation challenges, funding, and societal benefits, and the paper closes with a call for community-wide responsibility.
The dropout rate of minority middle school students is rising. This can be attributed to a number of factors that cultivate frustration and develop low self-esteem among minority adolescent students. Middle school students already struggle with self-image issues, but when the added pressure of factors such as low literacy skills, poverty within the home, early pregnancy, and low regard for education are also introduced, these students become lost in the system and develop the desire to give up or drop out — eliminating their opportunity to break the cycle of poverty by becoming educated and obtaining higher-paying employment.
The educational sector is under pressure to meet the federally mandated guidelines of the No Child Left Behind legislation. Early childhood education has previously been the focus of the national goal that every child will read by the time they complete third grade. Federal and local funding has been directed toward primary grade programs and technology in order to meet this goal. However, very little has been done to address the educational needs of minority middle school students and to keep them enrolled rather than dropping out. This issue is important because over three million minority students in our nation's middle schools are in serious danger of being "left behind" (Alliance for Excellence Education, 2002). These young people live throughout the country and come from all income levels.
Over 15% of African-American adolescents and 35% of Hispanic adolescents account for the number of minority middle school students who drop out of school (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1995). Most students who eventually drop out of middle school can be identified ahead of time. Teachers need additional training to recognize the at-risk behaviors exhibited by potential dropouts and should be trained to focus on students who are failing academically or who show signs of low self-esteem. Students in the lowest 25% of academic achievement are 3.5 times more likely to drop out than students in the next highest quartile, and twenty times more likely to drop out than top-performing students (Carnevale, 2001). Many at-risk minority middle school students are unable to read at the end of third grade, and their struggles with literacy continue into the 6th, 7th, and 8th grade.
Reading problems affect all subjects; struggling students experience no sense of achievement and eventually give up hope and drop out. Most students at risk of dropping out because of reading problems can be identified ahead of time and should receive proper educational assistance. While thousands of high school students can barely read upon graduation, the problem begins much earlier in middle school. Less than 75% of all eighth graders graduate from high school within five years, and in urban schools graduation rates dip below 50% (Greene, 2002).
Students pay a heavy price when they choose to drop out of school. The consequences are costly to both the individual and to society. Dropouts have fewer employment options and are typically employed in low-skilled, low-paying positions, keeping them in a cycle of poverty and low self-esteem. These adolescents often become teenage parents and can offer no better circumstances for their own children, perpetuating the cycle. Additional concerns include health problems, a greater likelihood of engaging in criminal or gang-related activities, and dependence on welfare and other government programs (Martin, Tobin, & Sugai, 2002).
Research has historically shown that students in the lowest quartile account for about two-thirds of all dropouts (Greene, 2002).
Historically, minority students have been exposed to a literature-based curriculum that does not reflect their cultures and backgrounds. The stories that minority students were required to read either did not interest them, had no real connection to their lives, or presented an idealized world far removed from their reality. Continuous exposure to this type of content has contributed to the development of low self-esteem among minority middle school students and has reinforced the desire to drop out. Only within the last few years has education and publishing begun to include culturally relevant stories — such as A Letter to Amy by Ezra Jack Keats — within basal readers.
In order to support themselves or a family, all students need to understand the importance of remaining in school and eventually earning a high school diploma. Educators should work to find ways to encourage middle school students to stay enrolled. Most occupations in today's workforce demand strong cognitive abilities and problem-solving skills. Employees must navigate countless technologies and make on-the-spot decisions. It is therefore imperative that all students remain in school and attain at least a high school diploma.
For the purpose of this review, literature was selected based upon the following criteria: professional journals and sociology abstracts were utilized; key words such as dropout, early school leavers, alternative education, and school-to-work were used to identify relevant articles; and selected literature met the following standards: (a) published after 1993, (b) provided an empirical description, program evaluation, or research related to dropout prevention, and (c) identified features of school-based interventions. A wide range of strategies were located, including school- or class-wide interventions, targeted interventions for minority middle school students considered at-risk on the basis of various background factors, and interventions for individuals clearly in danger of leaving school early.
Under the No Child Left Behind Act, state education departments are revising and implementing more rigorous standardized testing systems. Students are being held accountable for mastery at more grade levels and in additional subject areas, such as science and social studies, whereas in the past only core subjects were emphasized. Although the goal is to improve students' skills, an unintentional outcome of this policy shift may be an increase in the dropout rate, especially for students with learning disabilities (U.S. Department of Education, 2000). Teachers may feel pressured to increase the volume of material covered at the expense of instructional activities that benefit learners at risk for school failure (Benz, Lindstrom, & Yovanoff, 2000).
The article "Using a Psychoeducational Approach to Increase the Self-Esteem of Adolescents at High Risk for Dropping Out" (Wells, Miller, Tobacyk, & Clanton, 2002) addresses feelings of inferiority and low self-esteem in adolescents. The authors state that "many adolescents, by the time they do drop out, have lost all confidence in their ability to succeed in school and have developed feelings of inferiority." Their research describes changes in self-esteem among high-risk students who participated in an eight-week residential program designed to reduce dropout rates.
Eighty economically disadvantaged adolescents at high risk for dropping out were identified and invited by their school counselors to participate in the eight-week summer program. Participants ranged from fourteen to sixteen years of age and included thirty-two females and forty-eight males. The program was designed to target curriculum weaknesses and provide vocational instruction. Students were housed on a university campus for the duration of the program, including weekends. Five days a week, participants received four hours of academic instruction from master's-level teachers and four hours of vocational instruction. In the evenings, they received one to four hours of individual and/or group counseling from psychology graduate students. Participants' self-esteem was measured using the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory — School Form (Coopersmith, 1986), a 58-item instrument consisting of five subscales: General Self, Social Self-Peers, Home-Parents, School-Academic, and Total Self. A pretest was administered upon entry into the program and a posttest was completed eight weeks later.
The study found significant differences between pretest and posttest self-esteem total scores. A follow-up study of participants' school retention rates was conducted over the two years following the program. The first year after intervention yielded a dropout rate of zero. After the second year, the dropout rate among participants was 6%, compared to 21.2% for a control group of similar individuals who did not receive the intervention.
The Psychoeducational Theory underlying the program involved removing adolescents from their home environments and presenting educational alternatives to dropping out. In addition to increasing academic abilities and providing prevocational training, the program offered daily access to counselors, all of which likely contributed to its success in reducing dropout rates.
Daisey and Jose-Kampfner (2002) report that the dropout rate is currently increasing for Latino students, a result of discouragement attributed to teacher stereotyping, low expectations, and academic tracking. Latinos face unique social and cultural pressures — especially girls — that prompt many to leave school during the middle school years. Mixed messages from home and school, with competing values about career, marriage, and motherhood, add to this confusion (Canedy, 2001). Additional identified reasons for Latino dropouts include stereotyping of new students and a lack of self-confidence (Banfield, Johnson, Thomas, & Thieroff, 2002).
Martin, Tobin, and Sugai (2002) identified the following top ten reasons students drop out of school:
1. Not enough credits to graduate; 2. Lack of parental support for education; 3. Dysfunctional home life; 4. Working more than fifteen hours a week; 5. Substance abuse; 6. Frequent discipline referrals; 7. Inability to adjust to the school setting; 8. Pregnancy or student parenthood; 9. Peer pressure not to achieve or to leave school; 10. Low self-esteem.
These reasons are consistent with those reported by other researchers (Carnahan, 1994). Dropping out of school is a cumulative process, not an impulsive action (Finn, 1993). A student's sense of alienation is preceded by unsuccessful school experiences such as poor academic achievement, failing classes, grade retention, absenteeism, behavior and discipline problems, and school transfers. Dropout prevention efforts should account for all of these factors and be implemented within school systems. Successful programs can ease these alienating experiences and thereby reduce the dropout rate among minority middle school students.
Martin, Tobin, and Sugai (2002) identified the following proven programs that encourage minority students to remain in middle school: (a) Systematic Monitoring of Risk Factors, (b) Personal Growth Class — School Within a School, (c) Check and Connect, (d) Wraparound Interventions, and (e) Alternative Education Programs. While each of these programs has demonstrated individual success, characteristics from each may be incorporated within a school system to better meet students' needs.
The Systematic Monitoring of Risk Factors program monitors attendance, behavior, and grades — factors strongly indicative of academic and social engagement. Data may be used to identify students' needs for referrals to outside agencies, to allocate intervention resources, and to evaluate program effectiveness (Rumberger & Larson, 1998).
The School Within a School model is exemplified by the Multicultural Alternative Middle School Program for At-Risk Students (Weir, 1996), created and tested with 20 students from diverse ethnic backgrounds. The class was supported by one special education teacher, a full-time teaching assistant, a part-time teaching assistant, and a county mental health worker. Critical program features included: (a) self-paced learning and flexibility to accommodate alternative learning styles, (b) opportunities for inclusion within the general school setting, (c) coordination with community agencies, (d) staff in-service and training, (e) interdisciplinary thematic units, (f) daily journal writing, (g) cooperative learning and hands-on projects, and (h) ongoing evaluation. Survey results at the end of the initial testing period indicated that the majority of students felt they were trying harder and learning more in this environment than in traditional classes.
Personal Growth Classes have been used informally for many years and have grown in popularity for counseling at-risk students. Students are identified for participation and attend a class with a curriculum built around four units: (a) self-esteem, (b) decision making, (c) personal control, and (d) interpersonal communication. This program has been effective in reducing drug involvement and improving school achievement.
Check and Connect is a dropout prevention program designed to encourage at-risk adolescents with learning and behavioral disabilities to remain in school. The program pairs certified teachers or school employees as mentors with students and their families over an extended period. If a student changes schools within the district, the same mentor continues working with them. Mentors regularly check on students' engagement with school and intervene promptly when needed. Services are individualized to meet the specific needs of each student and family. Documented results indicate a 50% reduction in dropout rates (Martin, Tobin, & Sugai, 2002).
The Wraparound concept is utilized for students who are identified as at-risk and present behavioral challenges requiring support across multiple areas. Wraparound involves school staff and community agency personnel collaborating to provide services that surround the student and his or her family. An individual plan is created for each student and may involve school services, student services, family services, and community services — addressing needs such as preventing out-of-school suspension, providing transportation to court or medical appointments, securing emergency funds, and offering recreational coaching.
Alternative Education programs offer a wide array of services distinct from the typical school environment. Some are more structured; others provide individualized services in smaller classroom settings. Students in these programs are typically already in conflict with the law, at risk of failure, or exhibiting dangerous behavior. Removing such students from the typical school setting benefits both those students and the peers who may have felt intimidated by their presence.
Again, there is a vast diversity of approaches to preventing the dropout rate among minority middle school students. Educators must remain creative, flexible, and apply practical wisdom to any intervention program. While educators bear primary responsibility for implementing such a program, local community members also have a role to play in making a real difference in the lives of these students and their families.
Adam, M. (2003). Fighting the Latino dropout rate. Education Digest, 6, 23–28.
Banfield, K., Johnson, P., Thomas, P., & Thieroff, A. (2002). Defying Latino statistics. New York Amsterdam News, 10, 18.
Benz, M. R., Lindstrom, L., & Yovanoff, P. (2000). Improving graduation and employment outcomes of students with disabilities: Predictive factors and student perspectives. Exceptional Children, 66(4), 509–529.
Canedy, D. Often conflicted, Hispanic girls are dropping out at high rate. (2001, March 21). New York Times, pp. 1–20.
Carnevale, A. (2001). Help wanted…college required. Educational Testing Service.
Coopersmith, S. (1986). Self-Esteem Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press.
Donald, K., & Prevatt, F. (2003). Dropping out of school: A review of intervention programs. Journal of School Psychology, 5, 377–396.
Greene, J. (2002). High school graduation rates in the United States. New York, NY: Manhattan Institute.
Martin, E., Tobin, T., & Sugai, G. (2002). Current information on dropout prevention: Ideas from practitioners and the literature. Preventing School Failure, 47, 10.
Rumberger, R. W., & Larson, K. A. (1998). Student mobility and the increased risk of high school dropout. American Journal of Education, 107, 1–35.
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. (1995). Statistical abstract of the United States, 1995. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
U.S. Department of Education. (2000). To assure the free appropriate public education of all children with disabilities: Twenty-second annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from
Weir, R. M. (1996). Lessons from a middle level at-risk program. The Clearing House, 70, 48.
Always verify citation format against your institution’s current style guide requirements.