Instructional Design Models: Gagné, ADDIE, and the Digital Divide

Gagné's Nine Events and the History of Mathematics Lesson

Gagné's nine events of instruction describe a classroom process designed to ensure optimal learning. The History of Mathematics lesson appears to adhere to the majority of these nine events. However, very little attention is given to the role of the instructor during the various stages of the lesson. Specifically, events four and five — where the instructor provides learners with stimulus and guidance — are not explicitly stated in the lesson plan, though they may be implied in the ways addressed below.

The History of Mathematics lesson focuses on combining the subject matter with teaching students to use library media in order to develop their research skills. In other words, students are expected to arrive at the answers and information required for the lesson largely on their own, with guidance from the teacher.

The first of Gagné's events is gaining the students' attention. This is addressed by actively engaging learners from the beginning of the lesson. Specifically, each learner selects a partner and decides which role (A or B) each will play.

In the second event, students are informed of the objective through an outline that explains the general goals of the lesson. They are also given the opportunity to choose their own topic from those suggested by the outline, which further extends the first event and keeps students engaged with the subject matter.

Regarding the third event — stimulating recall of prior learning — it is assumed that students have already learned how to use encyclopedias before this lesson. They draw on this existing knowledge base to identify research terms and locate the relevant information required. This step also entails using previously learned skills to identify and write down the most important points of an article. Partners use each other's existing knowledge to enhance their own learning: each partner reads his or her main points to the other, and together they add to and improve what has been written. The lesson continues with partners providing each other with feedback throughout the various steps.

Although the lesson plan does not state it explicitly, the teacher might present stimulus by explaining the benefits of working with a partner and providing students with guidelines on identifying main points and writing a summary. This step would depend upon the learners' existing level of knowledge. The purpose of this lesson appears to be exercising existing skills while learning the value of collaborative work, rather than introducing entirely new skills.

Learner guidance can be provided by supporting students through the process of identifying main ideas and writing summaries while groups are engaged in the task. Because students are active for most of the lesson, the instructor can move between groups, check their progress, and offer guidance as needed.

The steps in the lesson plan appear, for the most part, to incorporate eliciting performance from students. From the outset, each step actively engages them. Feedback — the seventh event — is also a very prominent feature of the lesson. Learners provide continuous feedback throughout each stage, with additional feedback from the instructor during the performance assessment stage.

The final event, enhancing retention and transfer, is also incorporated throughout the lesson. Learners learn by teaching and learning from each other. The lesson appears to be built on the premise that retention is enhanced when students are engaged in providing their peers with feedback and stimulus. The instructor plays only a minimal role until the final stage, when summaries are written and revised before being submitted. In this way, each learner receives an equal amount of learning as well as the opportunity to learn by teaching.

The ADDIE Model Explained

Many instructors find the ADDIE model useful for its simplicity and ease of use (Malachowski, 2007). The acronym represents the following steps in designing an instructional event:

The first step is Analyze. This refers to both past and future lessons. The instructor analyzes the successes and failures of previous lessons, as well as how specific students respond to specific methods. These findings are then incorporated to provide a basis for the design of future sessions.

The second step is Design, in which the instructor analyzes the subject matter to be addressed, plans the lesson, and selects the media to be used for the presentation. During the design process, the instructor determines the objectives of the material; the skills, knowledge, and attitudes students will acquire; the resources and strategies to be used; the approach to presentation and reinforcement; and finally, the feedback mechanisms. These elements should directly integrate with learner needs as assessed during the analysis phase.

The third step is Development, which functions as a secondary analysis process. Learning experiences are created and tested to determine whether they are effective in meeting students' needs and whether they accurately align with the initial analysis.

Development is followed by Implementation, in which the learning experiences are presented to participants using the necessary media.

The final step is Evaluation, which entails an analysis of what has been done. Presentations and student responses in the classroom are carefully reviewed for their effectiveness. Any negative responses are recorded for the purpose of improving future instructional events. The findings are then used to improve future presentations of the same materials or applied to new materials for the same learner group.

Applying ADDIE: A Sociology Instructional Plan

The instructional plan described here is designed for the senior high school level. The specific topic is social change. It is assumed that the instructor has analyzed the needs of the students, as well as their level of understanding, when designing the lesson. The lesson incorporates significant opportunities for discussion, as well as for exercising skills such as advanced reading and writing.

The design of the lesson includes objectives such as identifying and discussing the main components of social change and how these manifest in modern society. The design is further developed through the addition of an anticipatory set — a discussion of the Revolutionary War — in order to demonstrate the need for and manifestation of social change under certain circumstances.

In the implementation phase, the anticipatory set is followed by dividing learners into three groups. The objectives of the group project are provided, and sections of responsibility are assigned to each group. Each group then completes their project within the assigned period, followed by group presentations on the target date. On that day, each group is evaluated and graded according to a predetermined rubric.

In evaluating the instructional design, the level of difficulty and subject matter appear appropriate for senior high school students. One improvement that could be suggested is that the topic used for the initial instruction be more contemporary in order to be more relevant to learners' own lives. Students could, for example, be asked to provide examples of social change on either a large or a smaller scale.

Barriers to Technology Integration in Classrooms

The Milken Exchange article addresses a number of barriers that teachers have encountered when implementing technology in their classrooms. These barriers mostly relate to issues of training, availability of appropriate materials, and the cost of technology.

The barrier that receives the most attention is teacher training in the use of digital technology and its integration into the curriculum. According to the survey cited by the article, the majority of digital technology training that teachers receive focuses on basic skills, while curriculum integration receives comparatively little attention. This is a notable gap, given that both types of training have been shown to be most effective in preparing teachers for digital-age instruction.

Another barrier is the sheer volume of information available. A side-effect of the information age is an overwhelming amount of content, not all of it of optimal quality. Teachers find it difficult to invest the time necessary to identify the best software and websites for their teaching. Truly high-quality material constitutes only a small fraction of what is available online. A related problem is that the material found must also match the particular curriculum being taught, which makes the search process even more complicated and time-consuming.

A further barrier is the number of computers available in classrooms. Classrooms with fewer computers will offer fewer opportunities for the use of digital technology, as the cited survey demonstrates. A related problem is the "digital divide," which is exacerbated by the gap between rich and poor households not only within a country's borders but also worldwide. According to the article, only 20% of students from households earning less than $30,000 per year have a computer at home, compared with 80% of students from households earning $75,000 or more. This creates a significant problem for homework: students without a computer at home can hardly be expected to complete computer-based assignments outside the classroom. This widens the digital divide, as students with computers at home hold a substantial advantage in terms of learning and future opportunities.

References

LMS Associates (1990). Lesson Plan: History of Mathematics. http://www.eduref.org/cgi-bin/printlessons.cgi/Virtual/Lessons/Mathematics/History/MAH0001.html

Malachowski, Michael J. (2007). ADDIE-Based Five-Step Method Towards Instructional Design. http://fog.ccsf.cc.ca.us/~mmalacho/OnLine/ADDIE.html#ID

Mallette, Bryan (2007). Social Change Instructional Plan. http://www.lessonplanspage.com/SSSociologySocialChangeHS.htm

Milken, Lowell (2007). Technology Counts. Milken Exchange & Education Week.

National Institute for Literacy. (1999). A Research-Based Guide for Literacy Practitioners Serving Adults with Learning Disabilities. Guidebook 3. Washington, DC: AED. http://www.nifl.gov/nifl/ld/reports/bridges_pt3.pdf

North East Independent School District (2007). District Instructional Plan.

Robert Gagné (1916–2002). http://www.my-ecoach.com/idtimeline/theory/gagne.html

TeacherNet.com (2007). Narrowing the 'digital divide.' Bowbridge Primary School. http://www.teachernet.gov.uk/casestudies/casestudy.cfm?id=220&subcatid=84&catid=36