Media Representation, Gender Roles, and Agenda Setting Theory

Introduction

Representation of characters and role models in different media outlets is based on perceptions and preconceived notions held by producers and audiences at large. Only those representations are drawn that largely resonate with current meanings given to people, characters, places, and objects. This paper presents two theoretical approaches to studying media and its broader impact. The theory of social constructivism provides a framework for assessing the meanings given to gender roles, objects, and places. The social construction of ideals, role models, and images keeps changing as meanings constantly transform from one generation to another and from one society to another. Agenda-setting theory is another framework that explains media and its influence. Though widely criticized, agenda-setting theory has been used by researchers to highlight the media's role in political discourse as well as in entertainment, news, and infotainment. Media has played a vital role in promoting culture as well as consumerism across the UK and the rest of the world.

Communication and representation through media is central to life in modern times. From print, theatre, and television to electronic media and internet-based social media, the communication of messages and the portrayal of images are the goals of any activity in these mediums. Because popular media contains images and depictions of gender roles, political roles, and cultural roles, the identity of media audiences is partly formed by relating to — or rejecting — these roles. Such constant role depiction and representation also creates "role models." The formation and representation of each role is shaped by the social order of its time, and media's influence leaves an impression on its audiences. It is thus a two-way process in which the public and media together endorse old meanings as well as create new ones.

Patriarchal concepts, the feminist movement, post-feminism, and biological determinism all influence the creation of media roles. The chivalry of men and the seductiveness of women are represented by almost all film media. This paper investigates the role of media in representing gender and social roles, the creation of images, and the notion of representation itself. The theoretical section describes two models for media study. The paper also examines two functions that media has played in the UK's consumer market. A subsequent section explains examples of media images as an outcome of creative and social processes. The notion of representation is then analyzed in the context of media examples, with Sex and the City used to critique how representation functions. Audience responses, variance in role models, and image portrayal with respect to changes in time and place are discussed. The final section reports findings and concludes the paper.

Theoretical Frameworks

Social constructivism has long been held as a framework through which researchers investigate human problems. Sociology, psychology, and media studies are commonly analyzed through this lens. The theory holds that the sociological learning of individuals occurs in groups within society, and that members of those groups — as well as different groups interacting with one another — create knowledge collectively. The society and its problems that we observe around us are socially constructed; thus, change is always taking place in the social construction of society. Meanings are derived from prevailing social orders and their interaction in the form of smaller and larger groups.

Language plays an important role in social constructivism. Language uses signs and symbols that represent concepts held by individuals and groups. These concepts are constantly changing, and thus the meaning we give to a particular gender role, place, or object is socially constructed reality that may change over time. From this perspective evolves the theory of media representation. Media representation theory refers to the construction of images of reality — such as gender roles, places, and objects — through the use of different media, including mass media. The theory involves the process by which such images, portrayed as natural and real, are created in media. Television, print, and speech are different sources used in such media production. Gender, race, ethnicity, sex, places, and objects are all constructed through a process that ultimately leads to their representation in one or another media outlet. In a media representation process, text production, audience reception, and reference image are all important dimensions.

Agenda-setting theory is another framework, presented by Dr. Donald Shaw and Dr. Maxwell McCombs in 1968. Though originally proposed in the context of mass media's impact on setting the "agenda" for public debate and political opinion, the theory has since been applied in domains beyond politics. Researchers have used it to argue that the potential of media to influence public opinion is immense — both intentional and unintentional. The values, perceptions, and construction of role models are all influenced by media content. The placement of content in prime time and its repetition sets the audience's "mental agenda" (Littlejohn & Foss, 2009). It was against the backdrop of the 1968 U.S. presidential election that McCombs and Shaw presented this theory after empirically studying 100 respondents who were asked to prioritize the most important issues in their state of North Carolina. The issues identified by respondents exactly matched those raised by popular media outlets such as Time magazine, NBC, The New York Times, and CBS evening broadcasts. Though empirically tested, the theory has been criticized for neglecting the role of broader public opinion and the "policy agenda." Critics also argue that the co-relationship and interdependence of public and media agendas were neglected.

Media and Society

Mass media in the UK has played a primary and decisive role in promoting the "expressive" aspects of goods and services rather than functional or technical ones. The use of sensational images and exotic imagery has helped fuel the consumption of goods. "Lifestyle" is the buzzword used to promote stylistic values in consumers' perceptions. It can be argued that images and their representation in mass media — specifically for advertising purposes — are intended to induce consumption. The UK's media is among the oldest and most mature in the world, yet it operates by broadly the same rules as media in the rest of the world.

The ideas and notions of "role model" and "lifestyle" are produced by media advertising, mostly by companies producing goods and services for consumption. In the UK, one of the most important functions that mass media has played is the spread of British culture throughout the world. Popular media productions, both print and electronic, have left a significant impact on how people around the world perceive British culture. The creation of reality into illusion — and vice versa — has been the hallmark of contemporary media at one time or another. Mass media, specifically film (Featherstone, 2007) and theatre, has been used effectively in the UK to promote both established social order and introduce fiction, as in the case of Harry Potter. The Rolling Stones and The Beatles are specific examples from UK music media. Another function that media has played in the UK is the creation of a "privacy-free" society, in which media is not regulated by any British law pertaining to privacy. However, breach-of-confidentiality suits have been brought against media outlets, and more recently against leading tabloids as well. British media has also aroused an "instinctual anxiety" (Ewen, 2001) in social and cultural settings. Russell (2002) argues that plots and product placements in television shows have specific impacts on consumer behavior.

Bibliography

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