Personality Theory: Behavioral, Interpersonal & Self-Psychology

Introduction

What shapes the human personality? What factors impact the development of an individual's cognition, behaviors, and outlook? These questions have long been considered by psychologists and researchers. Early on, some believed nature played a more dominant role; later, psychologists began to examine the role of a nurturing environment in the formation of personality. Over the decades, it has become increasingly evident that the human personality is complexly impacted by both nature and nurture. To assess personality, therefore, one needs a holistic understanding of the human subject. This paper discusses major concepts in behavioral, interpersonal, and self-psychology models of personality theory. It describes the roles of hereditary and environmental factors in personality development, identifies the assessment method most useful for evaluating personality, and provides personal and career applications.

Major Concepts in Personality Theory

Behaviorism focuses on how people develop learned behaviors and responses to stimuli. Seligman added to the field of behaviorism by developing the concept of learned helplessness. He asked the question: "Why do people become hopeless, feeling that there is nothing they can do to make matters better for themselves or to change something in their lives?" He theorized that people develop a sense of "learned helplessness," which is why they feel defeated regardless of the situation (Lecci, 2015). This is an important concept because it explains why people enter into modes of behavior that seem completely self-destructive: they have learned that this is the only way for them to act. What they need is an example of how to overcome their circumstances.

Sullivan was responsible for developing the idea of self-esteem, which he saw as something that deeply impacted how one's personality is formed. Self-esteem helped a person reduce anxiety and feel more personally secure. The greater a person's self-esteem, the more self-actualizing he or she could become. This stemmed from Maslow's (1943) theory of human motivation, in which it was posited that self-actualization was the final accomplishment of individuals after their esteem needs were met. What makes Sullivan's concept so important is that he argued individuals need to learn how to function in high-anxiety situations. The more successful they are in these types of situations, the better able they will be to handle anything that comes their way. They will be full of confidence and self-esteem. Self-esteem thus became known as an important quality of people who achieve success: they believe in themselves. In some respects, it offered an answer to Seligman's problem of learned helplessness.

The important concept that Kohut emphasized in his approach to self-psychology was that people need to empathize with others, and that parents who fail to empathize with their children are the most common contributors to psychopathology. Empathy as a concept was not new, but in terms of application Kohut described how a therapist could use empathy as a form of vicarious introspection that would enable the therapist to develop insight more quickly into the needs of the client (Lecci, 2015). This concept is the most important in this model because it facilitates the learning process and helps lay the foundation for improvement in the human personality when psychopathology has developed.

The Roles of Heredity and Environment

Heredity and environment impact the development of personality in significant ways. Essentially, it is a combination of nature and nurture that determines the pathway of personality development. Nature is established through biology — that is, through the hereditary transmission of DNA. However, DNA itself is not necessarily the final word in personality development. Researchers have shown that DNA can be, in a sense, unlocked by nurturing parents. Erikson's concept of psychosocial development offers a view of the epigenetic principle and explains that nature and nurture work together to develop the human personality (Lecci, 2015).

The epigenetic principle is important for understanding how nature and nurture work together to explain personality development. Weaver et al. (2004) and Hurley (2013) both researched this principle. The example that Weaver et al. (2004) give of how nature and nurture work together is the rat mother who licks her pups: the DNA of those pups is read differently by the body during development because the licking triggers a biological response. Those pups go on to lick their own pups. Hurley (2013) built on those findings by examining how rats born to attentive mothers have lower levels of glucocorticoid receptors in their hippocampus, while rats born to inattentive mothers have higher levels. Both researchers essentially showed that neither nature nor nurture operates in a vacuum — each influences the other.

Erikson's stages of development further explain this interaction of nature and nurture by focusing on an internal conflict within the person and framing it in a psychosocial manner. He showed that internal conflict is resolved or left unresolved based on how the person interacts with the environment. At each stage of development, the individual faces some internal conflict — such as identity vs. role confusion — and that conflict is shaped by the external environment and the degree to which the individual is appropriately nurtured. The nurturing of a mother toward her child at the very first stage of development helps the baby's brain and personality develop in a very specific way, much as the affections of a rat mother shown to her pups trigger a biological response that shapes the pup's development. Without that nurturing trigger, the behavior is not passed on through nature (DNA). The nurturing act must occur in order for the genetic characteristic to be activated and read by the body.

Psychosocial development is a highly applicable concept because Erikson presents personality development as a kind of dynamic, unfolding process. Nature by itself is insufficient to provide everything needed for proper development. Nurturing is necessary — but it must be balanced — neither too much nor too little — so that the individual develops sufficient autonomy and self-esteem, becoming independent without developing an attachment disorder.

Based on the behavioral, interpersonal, and self-psychology models, one can see a clear pattern in how individual personality is impacted by one's interaction with the environment, by stimuli, and by the internal processing of events. One's own self-esteem plays a significant part in how personality is shaped, and that esteem is strengthened through conflict and engagement with anxiety. If a person avoids anxiety and never confronts it, he or she will not develop much self-regard and is unlikely to achieve a fully developed personality.

Conclusion

Personality theory encompasses a wide range of views and models. The behavioral, interpersonal, and self-psychology models and their key concepts are all important in helping one understand how people develop. The concept of learned helplessness is important because it explains why people reach a state of self-defeat. The concept of self-esteem is important because it explains how people arrive at self-actualization. The concept of empathy is important because it enables therapists to help patients quickly identify their issues and address them constructively. Various assessments are useful depending on the context — whether clinical or non-clinical. Overall, personality is shaped by both nature and nurture, and individuals should reflect on how their own biology and environment have influenced who they are. For professionals in the field, this means using the tools of personality theory to help others understand themselves and address whatever issues require attention.

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