This introductory psychology essay addresses four core topics. First, it evaluates survey research as the preferred method for studying the relationship between alcohol and violence, discussing its strengths, weaknesses, and ethical considerations. Second, it distinguishes between positive and negative reinforcement using personal examples, and examines the ethics of operant conditioning. Third, it explores the humanistic theory of psychology as developed by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, including Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and Rogers's concept of self-regard. Finally, the essay considers how a counselor might identify and treat severe anxiety disorders, focusing on cognitive-behavioral therapy and exposure therapy as primary treatment approaches.
To investigate the relationship between alcohol and violence, the survey research method would be the most appropriate choice. Survey research encompasses any measurement procedures that involve asking questions of respondents. A survey can range from a short paper-and-pencil feedback form to an intensive one-on-one in-depth interview. Surveys can be divided into two broad areas: questionnaires and interviews (Survey Research, 2006).
Surveys can be broken down into classes by their method of data collection. Some of the most common types are mail surveys, telephone interviews, and in-person interviews. Mail surveys are usually very low in cost, though problems can arise when respondents do not cooperate sufficiently. Mail surveys are most effective when directed at particular groups. Telephone interviews are the most efficient method for collecting certain types of data and are used increasingly, particularly when timeliness is a factor and the survey length is limited. In-person interviews are much more expensive than mail or telephone surveys, but may be necessary when complex information is to be collected. Some surveys combine various methods in order to be carried out effectively (Chapter 1 — What is a Survey?, n.d.).
Using the survey method has several strengths. Surveys are relatively inexpensive, especially when self-administered. They are useful for describing the characteristics of a large population, and no other method of observation can provide this general capability. They can be administered from remote locations using mail, email, or telephone, which makes it possible to use very large samples — making results statistically significant even when analyzing multiple variables. This method allows for many questions to be asked about a given topic, giving considerable flexibility to the analysis. Standardized questions allow measurements to be more precise by enforcing uniform definitions upon participants, and standardization ensures that similar data can be collected from groups and then interpreted in the same way (Advantages and Disadvantages of the Survey Method, 2009).
Using this research method also has its weaknesses. Standardization forces the researcher to develop questions general enough to be minimally appropriate for all respondents. Surveys can be inflexible in that they require the initial study design, tool, and administration to remain unchanged throughout data collection. The researcher must ensure that a large number of the selected sample will respond. It is sometimes difficult for participants to recall information accurately or to tell the truth about a controversial question. Unlike direct observation, survey research — excluding some interview approaches — can seldom account for context (Advantages and Disadvantages of the Survey Method, 2009).
The primary ethical assumptions of social research are voluntary participation, no harm to subjects, integrity, privacy, anonymity, and confidentiality. All of these considerations must be addressed to ensure that people's rights are protected and that no ethical violations occur (Advantages and Disadvantages of the Survey Method, 2009). For a research study to be successful, it is important that all procedures are properly followed and all rules are closely adhered to.
A reinforcer is any stimulus or event that functions to increase the likelihood that the behavior which led to it will be repeated. In order to distinguish between the possibilities, Skinner used the term positive to refer to situations where a stimulus is presented and negative to refer to situations in which a stimulus is removed (Schacter, Gilbert, & Wegner, 2009, p. 226).
Negative reinforcement occurs when something undesirable is removed. It works to strengthen a behavior because a negative condition is stopped or avoided as a consequence of that behavior (Negative Reinforcement University, 1999). Positive reinforcement, on the other hand, is the presentation of something pleasant or rewarding immediately following a behavior. It makes that behavior more likely to occur in the future and is one of the most powerful tools for shaping behavior (Positive Reinforcement: Training Your Dog or Cat with Treats and Praise, 2008).
Driving in heavy traffic is an example of negative reinforcement. Avoiding such traffic is the negative condition I wished to avoid. I left home earlier than usual one morning and did not run into heavy traffic. So the next day I left home earlier again, and again avoided heavy traffic. The behavior of leaving home earlier was strengthened by the consequence of not encountering heavy traffic. Avoiding heavy traffic shaped my behavior so that I now consistently leave earlier in the morning.
A good example of positive reinforcement occurred in class. The material we were studying was particularly difficult for me, and I was struggling to answer questions because I did not feel confident in my knowledge. I answered one question correctly, and the instructor praised me for it. This allowed me to build the confidence to continue volunteering to answer questions. The instructor's positive reinforcement shaped my attitude about participating in class, because of the immediate reward of praise that I received.
The ethical considerations in operant conditioning are no different from those involved in any other form of therapy. The aim is to achieve the maximum benefit to the patient and to society, giving careful consideration to areas where the two might conflict. The primary ethical consideration must always be the well-being of the patient and society as a whole (Miron, n.d.).
Operant conditioning and the shaping that occurs through its use of negative and positive reinforcers can be a very useful tool in changing a person's behavior. Because it differs significantly from other approaches and has a high effectiveness rate, it is essential that those professionals carrying it out understand it thoroughly, so that it can be conducted on a truly ethical basis. The ethical considerations must address not only the individual patient but also society as a whole. It must be remembered that each patient will someday return to society and must be able to function within it. Unethical behavior can damage both the individual and the society to which they return and should be avoided at all costs.
"Maslow and Rogers on human potential and needs"
"Identifying symptoms and applying behavioral therapies"
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