Reading Comprehension in Middle Grades: Theories and Practice

Introduction to Reading Comprehension

Reading comprehension refers to a complex, active process that incorporates reader-related variables (such as linguistic awareness), activity-related variables (such as studying for the purpose of retaining information for future retrieval), and text-related variables (such as high-level vocabulary). All of these are correlated within a broader socio-cultural context. However, studies on the development of reading comprehension have, thus far, been typified by a focus on student traits and/or specified instructional systems (Carnegie Council on Advancing Adolescent Literacy [CCAAL], 2010). This comprehensive literature base clearly demonstrates that oral language proficiency — including vocabulary, print-independent aspects, and listening comprehension — as well as decoding abilities (print-dependent aspects) are significantly linked with reading comprehension. This link is supported by strong theoretical as well as practical evidence (Ouellette & Beers, 2010). Furthermore, although decoding abilities continue to account for unique reading comprehension variations even in adults, oral language proficiencies assume a more predictive role as children mature (Gamez & Lesaux, 2015).

Reading comprehension results from the interaction of a reader's prior knowledge with the tactics and procedures for coordinating it, combined with textual information used to fulfill the demands of the text (CCAAL, 2010). This constant reader-text interaction fosters awareness and enables readers to establish a comprehension strategy based on their individual goals (Echevarria, 2006). Reading comprehension construction denotes the organization of a text's explicit propositions — its micro-structure — as well as its global text structure, or macro-structure. This construction supports a representation that encourages the active adoption of strategies for literal comprehension (Ouellette & Beers, 2010). Comprehending a given text's key idea or ideas enables readers to relate textual information to knowledge they already possess, creating a situational representation in their minds. These interpretations involve metacognitive control and active engagement with the text's meaning through specific approaches (Gayo, Deano, Conde, Ribeiro, Cadime, & Alfonso, 2014).

According to theory, reading comprehension may be affected by reading fluency. The reading theory known as the Lexical Quality Hypothesis and Automatic Theory (LQHAT) indicates that if sub-skills processing consumes too much of a reader's attention, most intellectual resources are used for low-level processing and word decoding, leaving only limited resources for higher-level skills such as reading comprehension, interpretation, and information integration. However, if sub-skills processing becomes automatic, more attention and cognitive resources become available for higher-level reading components. Therefore, quick and accurate word-reading should logically lead to reading comprehension improvement (Li & Wu, 2015).

Research on Classroom Language and Literature Discussions

Honchell and Pittman (2014) attempted to determine how participating in literature discussions affects struggling readers in middle school. Three primary data sources were used for gathering information: surveys, audio-recorded conversations, and student-made pamphlets. Because the research focused on struggling readers, data from 16 middle school students who struggled with reading were the focal point of analysis, although information was accumulated from all participants engaged in the literature discussion groups (LDGs). Data were organized beginning with an initial survey; any topic noted in two or more of the three sources was color-coded, and patterns emerging from each source were identified and analyzed to address the research question. This study's findings demonstrate that students could better understand text during LDGs when prior knowledge and experiences were used to connect text with self. Sharing inferences and connections within the group also assisted in understanding. Both audio-recorded exchanges and surveys proved particularly useful to the study (Pittman & Honchell, 2014).

While attempting to understand the optimal classroom environment for fostering reading comprehension among early adolescent language-minority (LM) and English-only (EO) learners, Gamez and Lesaux (2015) conducted a study assessing the impact of one classroom language setting variable — the teacher's language use — on reading comprehension improvements over a single school year. The research specifically examined teachers' language stability (i.e., total quantity of talk and high-level vocabulary usage) and vocabulary instruction methods across the academic year. A two-step analytic process was employed to address procedural issues related to time. The findings depicted a positive correlation between exposure to teacher language use and reading advances in both EO and LM learners. This correlation aligns with developmental reading theories that commonly find text comprehension to depend largely on the depth of language comprehension — for example, vocabulary — employed in that text. This implies that reading to comprehend requires readers to have knowledge of spelling, word meanings, and pronunciations, that is, the quality of their vocabulary representations. Developing a deep understanding of words therefore requires varied experiences with different words, such as through exposure to teachers' high-level vocabulary. Every student, particularly those who struggle with reading, should regularly encounter a high-quality vocabulary (Gamez & Lesaux, 2015).

In view of these findings regarding teachers' language stability, combined with research revealing that teacher language use varies depending on their own language knowledge (Corrigan, 2011), the methods by which teachers can use language to facilitate change should receive crucial empirical consideration. There may be numerous possible means of investigation in this regard. These include working with teachers to recast and rephrase their language, as well as developing and adopting classroom-based interventions and programs aimed at increasing high-level vocabulary usage by both teachers and students. Either approach is suitable for empirical research, and both demonstrate a relationship between student learning and increased classroom time devoted to discussion. Enhancing classroom language complexity could, undeniably, be a highly promising opportunity for strengthening student reading. A meta-analysis investigating diverse classroom discussion techniques found that student engagement in classroom discussions — through open-ended questions that allow extended replies — furthers text comprehension (Gamez & Lesaux, 2015).

The "Aprender a Compreender" (or "Learning to Understand") initiative proved effective for 5th graders. Post-intervention outcomes showed significant differences in comprehension test scores for intervention students, whose scores had initially been equal to those of the comparison group. This demonstrates that strategic instruction produces sizeable improvements in 5th graders' reading comprehension. Among 6th graders, both groups showed significant improvements in post-test scores; however, students participating in the program had differential score increases compared to the comparison group. The effect size was large for the intervention group, meaning their improvement was more pronounced than that of the comparison group (Gayo et al., 2014).

Previous findings reveal that morphological awareness (Kieffer, Biancarosa, & Mancilla-Martinez, 2013), as well as orthographical and phonological awareness, can impact reading. An extensive body of literature addresses the correlation between word reading and metalinguistic awareness (Xue, Shu, Li, Li, & Tian, 2013), as morphology, phonology, and orthography are regarded as three key lexical components. Normal reading depends on the activation of word representations for accurate word identification; therefore, lexical components are essential for reading. Relatively little research has addressed the association between reading comprehension and metalinguistic awareness, particularly the correlations among reading comprehension, phonological awareness, and orthographical awareness. For Chinese, reading comprehension is considered a complex, advanced process that involves different lexical elements (Li & Wu, 2015).

Honchell and Pittman's post-survey indicated that students valued discussions for facilitating understanding of content they had read. When asked why they enjoyed literature discussions, several students responded that the discussions helped them understand the text better. Some noted that discussions helped them discover previously unknown information, clarified ideas and concepts that had been incomprehensible, and enabled them to express their own views while learning others'. Even students who stated that their reading interest had not changed reported that their understanding and enjoyment of reading improved due to enhanced comprehension of book content. The adolescents studied showed behavior characteristic of typical teenagers: they enjoyed social interactions with friends, and discussing texts they had read enhanced their understanding of the subject matter while enriching their reading experience (Pittman & Honchell, 2014).

Theoretical Frameworks: Constructivism and Reader-Response Theory

Constructivist learning theories are grounded in the assumption that learners fashion meanings from texts and integrate newly acquired knowledge into existing mental constructs. Constructivism is taught extensively to teachers-in-training in the United States and elsewhere as an ideal teaching approach. Constructivists support learning through practical action and encourage students to develop their knowledge base independently. Those who oppose this approach include conservative or orthodox parents, policy makers, and some researchers and teachers who instead advocate a more direct method of instruction, wherein teachers convey knowledge explicitly to students.

Constructivism represents a broad concept and encompasses numerous theories, all of which regard students as active participants in constructing their own knowledge base. Several conceptual perspectives are adopted by researchers to understand the process of mental construction; these can be conveniently divided into two groups: social and cognitive. The former takes a learner-involvement and social-environment approach, while the latter approaches learning from an individual perspective (Steiner, 2014).

Cognitive psychology typically explores mental processes such as thinking, memory, language, and learning. The key foundation of cognitive teaching and learning theories is developmental readiness combined with dynamic, first-hand learning. Cognitive learning psychologists hold that understanding and learning both depend on the learner's developmental stage and the instructional experiences provided. Children generally achieve cognitive levels at specific ages; teachers must therefore be able to anticipate or assess when their pupils are, or will be, ready to learn new skills and concepts. From this viewpoint, instruction must be grounded in children's developmental readiness and must be dynamic and "authentic" — involving discovery and integration of new material — rather than simply conveying pre-packaged concepts from a book or teacher (Steiner, 2014).

A pivotal figure in cognitive learning theory is Jean Piaget. He asserts in several influential works that children develop knowledge on their own through interactions with the surrounding world. These interactions help children create mental models or schemas that alter, expand, and become more complex with continued learning. Direct, repeated engagement is crucial to integrating new knowledge into children's existing mental frameworks. When children encounter a novel experience, they alter or adapt their existing knowledge to achieve cognitive equilibrium. In classrooms adhering to Piagetian approaches, new information is presented as a problem-solving tool in the context of experience — as an aid for comprehending the experience — rather than as isolated facts to be memorized. Conceptual ideas are assimilated into children's mental models when students display developmental readiness and when abstraction is provided in context (Steiner, 2014).

A prominent social constructivist in the teaching-learning field, Lev Vygotsky presents a social cognitive learning theory in which the classroom and the teacher together provide a social setting for a child's cognitive growth and learning. He defines the zone of proximal development — the range between tasks children can perform independently and those they cannot accomplish even with assistance — as a primary vehicle for learning. Students can master skills and concepts within their zone of proximal development by working with more advanced peers or teachers, thereby learning things they could not achieve on their own. Learning, in this view, is fundamentally a collaborative, social activity (Steiner, 2014).

Conclusion and Research Questions

The body of research reviewed here highlights the multifaceted nature of reading comprehension and the many variables — oral language proficiency, decoding ability, fluency, metalinguistic awareness, classroom language environment, and instructional theory — that together shape how middle school students develop as readers. Both cognitive constructivist and reader-response theories offer valuable, if imperfect, frameworks for understanding and supporting that development. Empirical findings consistently affirm that strategic instruction, rich classroom language, and opportunities for discussion can improve comprehension outcomes, particularly for struggling and language-minority learners.

Two research questions emerge from this literature review:

1. How does the schoolroom language environment relate to reading comprehension improvements in middle school?

2. What link can be found between language use by teachers and early adolescents' reading comprehension, and does language status lead to any variations in this relationship?

References

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