Seven Ecumenical Councils and the Development of Christian Theology

Introduction: Christianity and the Ecumenical Councils

Tracing the development of Christianity thousands of years ago reveals a journey as varied and as rife with controversy, confusion, and integrity as the development of democracy in America. Examining this multifaceted and at times nebulous process allows for greater insight into modern-day Christianity. The seven ecumenical councils of the early Church held clear positions regarding Jesus Christ within the evolving Trinitarian theology of the era. These seven councils occurred between the years 325 and 787 in Nicaea, Constantinople, Ephesus, and Chalcedon (Need, xiii). The councils were made up of leaders and men of influence within the Church — such as bishops — who were summoned by the emperor of the time in order to help resolve certain confusions within Christianity and the broader theology that shaped it (Need, xiii).

It was through these councils that emperors and other leaders of the time believed a greater sense of unity could be given to the Church. In this context, ecumenical refers to "of the whole lived-in world," and the very term conveys how much of the Roman world had come under Christianity following Constantine's conversion: there was perhaps an overwhelming sense of the primacy and dominance of the Christian religion. One can truly trace the development of theology and of the understanding of Christ through the decisions and conclusions reached by these ecumenical councils. These councils helped develop much of the vocabulary that has been used when referring to Christ. Thus, the greater knowledge a scholar has of the inner workings of these councils, the deeper understanding one will have of the intermingling of the human and divine natures of Christ.

The First and Second Councils: Establishing the Trinity

The first council occurred in Nicaea in 325. It was largely motivated by Constantine, who desired to harness the power of the rapidly growing religion as a means of fortifying the Roman Empire (Elsaie, 150). Constantine essentially believed that the lack of unity within the Church was a source of instability for the greater kingdom as a whole. He architected this council, assembling 318 bishops — a decision motivated by political and military concerns (Elsaie, 150). "He claimed that he saw a vision of the Cross in the middle of the sun, his god before converting to Christianity in his last day. Even the bishops had no illusion about that, for not only did the Emperor preside over the Council, he also proclaimed that his will was a divine law" (Elsaie, 150). This meant that the emperor was viewed as a Universal Bishop, even though he had no formal knowledge of Jesus' teachings.

During this council, only a minority of the bishops initially supported Athanasius's perspective of Christ. However, Athanasius harnessed his powerful talent for argument to impress his theology upon the bishops and persuade almost all of them to sign the following creed: "the Creator, God the Father, and the Redeemer, Son of God, were of the same nature, and that Jesus is the only begotten of the Father" (Elsaie, 150). This became a truly crucial tenet of later Christianity and is credited with advancing the religion to the next level.

The second council occurred in Constantinople and was able to use the findings of the first council as a springboard. The first council had essentially asserted the overall duality of God. This foundation was ripe for expansion into the concept of the Holy Trinity that is sacred in Christianity today. It was the emperor Theodosius who was responsible for convening this second council. Despite being a tyrant who caused tremendous suffering in his kingdom, Theodosius made Christianity the state religion. He ensured that the poor were kept in intolerable poverty and that all citizens were burdened with unbearably high taxes. His oppressive regime knew no boundaries: "In the year 390, he had seven thousand rebellious citizens murdered in a frightful bloodbath; at the same time the 'Halleluiah' came to be used in the Christian churches" (Elsaie, 152).

Nevertheless, the notion of the Holy Trinity — God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit — was introduced during this regime and accepted as part of the official church belief system. Via acknowledgement of the Nicene Creed, the council agreed to encompass the recognition and worship of the Holy Spirit alongside the Father and Son (Elsaie, 152). This Holy Spirit was viewed as being made of the same substance as the other persons of God — a component of Church dogma that still exists in a rather steadfast manner today.

This was so momentous because discord about the Trinity can seem almost as old as Christianity itself. "We can easily see how disputes could arise about the Trinity, whose persons appear in the opening verses of the earliest piece of Christian literature, Paul's first epistle to the Thessalonians (1:1–5)" (Kelly, 19). The ability to finally reach a consensus on this issue therefore represented firm and definite progress — an act of philosophical expansion that gave the Church a stable doctrinal foundation.

The Third and Fourth Councils: The Nature and Person of Christ

Because the second council had established a degree of stability of belief through the Holy Trinity, it created the opportunity for the third council to engage more readily in expansion. The third council shifted attention from the Holy Trinity as a whole to the character of Christ himself. It pondered the humanity of Christ, how his humanity could coexist with his divinity, and how all three persons of the Holy Trinity could actually be one and the same. This created a range of difficult questions and theological conundrums. As a result, the Virgin Mary was brought into the equation: through this council, she was designated the official bearer of God, or the Mother of God. "The council stated that what Mary bore was not a human closely united with God, but a single and undivided entity who is God and man at the same time" (Elsaie, 153).

However, this definition caused significant controversy within the Church, as many felt it failed to adequately distinguish between Jesus the divine and Jesus the human. The council caused a long-term division between Christianity in the East and the West. Christians living east of Syria and Mesopotamia felt unable to sign off on that definition of Mary, while in the West, critics felt the Church of the East had effectively created two separate beings out of Christ (Elsaie, 153).

The fourth council occurred in 452 in Chalcedon and was commenced by the Byzantine emperor Marcianus, though it was technically overseen by his wife, the empress Pulcheria, who was in closer communication with the bishops and better understood their concerns. "Pope Leo I initiated the dogmatic formula that Jesus had two natures. The council proclaimed the doctrine that divine and human nature are inseparably united in the person of Jesus. This was an attempt to compromise and strike a balance between the Alexandrine and Antiochene approaches, allowing for both the diversity and the unity within the incarnate Christ" (Elsaie, 154).

Reaching agreement on the dual nature of Christ proved nearly impossible. In Alexandria, for instance, theologians were willing to believe that Christ was evoked from two natures, but not that he existed in two natures — a subtle distinction that nonetheless caused enormous controversy (Elsaie, 154). To this day, the Chalcedonian Definition affirms belief in the two natures of Christ. The council ultimately vested doctrinal authority in the Pope, who could assert his position when he deemed it necessary. These roots demonstrate the enduring religious power of Rome over centuries to come (Elsaie, 154).

Conclusion: Power, Dogma, and the Shaping of Christianity

Examining the evolution of Christian dogma through these councils can help illuminate the ways in which Christ and Christian philosophy and beliefs have developed over time. Studying the councils gives one a sense of how tyrannical and powerful the Church has been over time and how it has wielded such enormous influence over the history of mankind and of western civilization. So much of the perspective of Christian dogma was interpreted by human beings, with all of their baggage, bias, and agendas. When examining the councils in this manner, one sees very clearly how religion was used as a means of ruling people by sculpting their belief systems.

In a perfect world, Jesus would have spelled out exactly what he wanted and how he wanted Christianity shaped and to manifest. Unfortunately, Christianity was shaped by men in power who were often deeply tyrannical. Even so, examining the development of these councils helps shed light on some of the more fundamental Christian beliefs, such as the Holy Trinity and the role of the Virgin Mary within the Christian faith. Learning how these ideas developed and were expanded from earlier ideas gives one a more nuanced perspective about the religion and the influence of world history on its formation.

Works Cited

Elsaie, Adel M. History of Truth: The Truth About God and Religions. USIM Publisher, Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia, 2012.

Http://www.usislam.org/. "The Ecumenical Councils of Church. How Jesus Was Made God, History of Truth." USISLAM.ORG — Search The Truth About Allah, Islam, Christianity, Judaism, www.usislam.org/69ecum.htm. Accessed 17 June 2018.

Kelly, Joseph F. The Ecumenical Councils of the Catholic Church: A History. Liturgical P, 2009.

Need, Stephen W. Truly Divine and Truly Human: The Story of Christ and the Seven Ecumenical Councils. SPCK, 2008.

Schmeling, Gaylin R. "The Christology of the Seven Ecumenical Councils." Bethany Lutheran Theological Seminary: Mankato, MN, www.blts.edu/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/GRS-Christology.pdf. Accessed 17 June 2018.