Situated Cognition and Natural Learning Theories for ELLs

Introduction to Situated Cognition Theory

Situated cognition theory states that the knowledge people possess is embedded in the activities, culture, and context within which it is learned. This type of learning is also commonly referred to as "situated learning." Many learning practice methods assume the acquisition of knowledge can be separated from the situation in which it is applied. Critics point out that such an assumption inhibits the effectiveness of teaching practice. Inferences from recent research indicate that knowledge is situated — it is partly a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed and applied.

Researchers have shed light on how this perspective of knowledge influences an understanding of the learning process. They point out that conventional schooling often ignores the critical role of school culture in the overall learning that takes place. These researchers have proposed cognitive apprenticeship (Brown, 1989) as a viable alternative to conventional schooling methods, an approach that recognizes the situated nature of knowledge.

Situated cognition represents a dramatic shift from traditional psychological theories of learning. It departs from individual-based and mechanistic approaches, moving instead toward emergent perspectives of learning that incorporate the social role (J.G., 1998; Lave, 1991; Brown, 1989). The situated learning theory is credited to these authors. Collins (1988) explains situated learning as the process in which skills and knowledge are acquired in contexts that mirror the way they will be applied in real-life scenarios (p. 2).

Situated Learning in Practice

Situated learning proponents expect that instructors will place learners in situations that resemble the contexts in which the knowledge is meant to be applied (Schell, 1997). Cognitive apprenticeship approaches are practical learning methods that seek to put learning in its relevant context (Brown, 1989). For instance, in a tennis training course, trainees are coached on basic skills such as the backhand serve, forehand serve, and others. However, the most important element lies in the practical aspect: watching experts model the skills, receiving expert coaching, and — most fundamentally — honing skills by participating in real matches governed by the rules of the game.

Lave (1991) describes learning as a core part of the generative social pursuits in the world one inhabits. This definition carries a significant analytical dimension, pointing to the fact that in generative practice, learning involves creation and co-creation. The social implication highlights the reality that learning occurs, at least in part, in partnership with another person. The notion of a "lived-in world" refers to the reality that people inhabit a real world that makes learning a relevant, useful, and transferable practice.

From this standpoint, it follows that the acquisition of a foreign language will be more successful if learners are exposed to conversational and socio-cultural activities that increase complexity and diversity, as opposed to focusing solely on grammar exercises and paper-and-pen worksheets. Dynamic communities are an integral element of situated cognition theory. This implies that learning involves not only learners and their teachers but an assortment of others drawn from the general community (Lave, 1991) — such as business experts, technology professionals, and the like. Learning communities are dynamic in the sense that members assume varying roles at varying times, as dictated by the needs of the learner. For instance, a student may take on the role of learner, coach, or instructor at various points in the course of learning. If a learner has acquired the skill to embed an object on a web page, they may proceed to teach others how to do the same.

The theory of situated learning has antecedents in the work of Vygotsky (social learning theory) and Gibson (theory of affordances). In addition, Schoenfeld's theories on problem-solving in mathematics contain essential elements of the situated learning approach. According to Collins (1988), there are four benefits that learners derive from situated learning as a theoretical framework. First, students learn the conditions under which the knowledge they acquire is meant to be applied. Second, learners are more likely to pursue innovation and problem-solving when learning occurs in diverse and novel situations. Third, such learning scenarios allow students to come to grips with the broader implications of the knowledge acquired. Finally, the scenario allows knowledge to be structured in a way that enables learners to retrieve and apply it in future contexts.

The Natural Learning Approach to ELL

The Natural Approach to language learning is based on the significance of communication. It rests on the concept that communication is an essential element in language acquisition, and that grammar and its accompanying structures should be learned only to polish existing communication skills. For the learner to acquire knowledge, communication must be effective — meaning the learner must understand the message being conveyed.

According to Krashen and Terrell, learning a language and language acquisition are distinct processes. Learning a language involves internalizing rules and consciously being aware of the dictates of grammar, including the ability to apply such knowledge to given situations (Krashen, 1994). Proficiency in English — and especially in academic English — takes time. Language learners follow a regular routine and sequence, irrespective of their native language, though learners from specific first-language backgrounds may exhibit observable sub-stages in the sequence. Learners will therefore progress at different rates based on a range of factors that may include native language, age, affective considerations, and others (Krashen & Terrell, 1983).

Language acquisition refers to the ability to speak, understand, and communicate in a second language effectively and fluently. Conscious knowledge of grammar and its structures is helpful only when three conditions are met: learners must be allowed time to listen to and observe the phonetic dynamics of the new language before they attempt to speak; the student ought to be consciously aware of the correctness of words, sentences, and grammatical forms; and the learner must know when, how, and where to apply a given rule in conversation (Krashen, 1994).

In order to fully understand the natural language acquisition process, one must consider the following four basic principles that underlie this learning approach:

1. One must go through a comprehension process before producing output.
2. Production occurs in stages.
3. Learning incorporates communicative objectives.
4. Language learning activities in the classroom must aim at lowering the affective filter.