Learning Theories and Their Role in Higher Education Design

Introduction

Learning has no single definition that researchers, theorists, and educators accept universally (Schunk, 2020). According to Mayer (2002) and Ambrose et al. (2010), learning is a process geared toward change that occurs as a result of experience — one that increases an individual's ability to enhance performance and engage in future learning. Sweller et al. (2011) define learning as a form of change in human memory over time, while Brown et al. (2014) explain that learning is the acquisition of skills and knowledge and having them available in memory to help solve future problems and exploit opportunities as they arise.

According to Lefrancois (2019), learning is an internal neurological process that is invisible. He explains that learning involves a degree of permanent changes to capability (skills or knowledge needed to do or work on something) and disposition (the likelihood to perform), both resulting from experience. Because changes in capability and disposition cannot be seen or observed directly, performance is necessary to assess learning.

Schunk (2020), however, defines learning as an enduring change in an individual's behavior or capacity to behave in a particular way, resulting from experience or practice. He states that learning involves acquiring and modifying skills, knowledge, beliefs, techniques, behaviors, and attitudes, and that people learn behavioral, cognitive, motor, linguistic, and social skills. According to learning theory scholar Harasim (2017), a learning theory is an explanation of the reason certain things happen or how they happen — designed to help people better understand how learning occurs and how knowledge is formed. Lefrancois (2019) adds that a learning theory aims to organize and systematize what is already known about human learning, and that a robust learning theory explains, predicts, and can even shape learners' behaviors.

Learning theories have a rich history, dating back to the ancient Greeks. According to Clark (2020), there are over 100 learning theories that explore how people learn — covering how individuals develop skills, gain new knowledge, change values and attitudes, and adopt new behaviors. Learning is an ongoing, lifelong process that varies from one person to another. Theory-based teaching and learning help educators effectively organize their thoughts and visualize what they want to convey. Due to the long history and broad nature of learning theories, this paper focuses on a few theoretical frameworks most relevant to designing integrated classroom and online learning in higher education.

Major Types of Learning Theories

According to many theorists, learning theories are grouped into two broad categories based on epistemology: objectivist and constructivist. Objectivist epistemology includes Cognitivism, Behaviorism, and Connectivism, while constructivist epistemology includes Online Collaborative Learning and Constructivism. However, Harasim (2017) groups most learning theories into social or critical theories and scientific (experimental or hypothesis-driven) theories. These categories reflect the general theoretical divide between "soft" social science theories and "hard" science (STEM) theories, and between qualitative and quantitative scientific research. Although this categorization still exists in educational discourse, it is increasingly becoming less prominent.

The majority of learning theories feature a formalized study technique and an empirical component, including analysis and a summary or conclusion (Harasim, 2017). The theories create discourse and language capable of influencing practice and research in education. However, every theory has limitations because learning is a sophisticated phenomenon — meaning that no single learning theory can offer complete and definitive explanations or answers to all academic questions. Even so, learning theories can enhance our understanding of how learning occurs. It is also worth noting that learning theories did not evolve linearly, and later theories are not necessarily better than earlier ones; earlier frameworks continue to exert a significant impact on current research (Lefrancois, 2019).

Core Learning Theories Explained

Behaviorism draws heavily on the works of B.F. Skinner to explain how learning occurs. Skinner theorized that learning takes place through a series of punishments and rewards. According to the behaviorist view, behavior is defined by external factors, and behavioral conditioning can be adopted as a universally applicable learning process. In this theory, negative and positive reinforcement comprise effective behavior modification and learning tools. Although this is how Skinner believed learning could occur, the Behaviorist Theory adopted in the modern classroom functions primarily as a behavior management tool. Educators still rely on two important components of the theory: repetition and practice (Fontana, 1984).

Rewards, according to Skinner, heighten the likelihood that behaviors will become habitual, while punishments lower the possibility of repetition. Skinner also explained that rewards and punishments can be either negative or positive — a point many people find confusing. He meant that adding something to a particular environment triggers positive interaction, while removing something from that same environment creates a negative interaction. For example, eliminating an undesirable activity from an agenda may constitute a negative reward, while adding an undesirable activity to the agenda may constitute a positive punishment (Fontana, 1984).

Jean Piaget developed the Cognitive Learning Theory in opposition to the view that learners are passive and merely react to environmental stimuli. According to the theory, a child develops cognitive skills and pathways to better understand and respond to experiences. Students, based on this theory, learn most effectively through lecture instruction and reading. The Cognitive Theory illustrates how the mind is programmed to work during learning: just like a computer, the mind accepts information for processing and utilizes it to produce learning outcomes. The stages of cognitive development outlined in the theory demonstrate that a learner can progressively comprehend increasingly abstract and sophisticated concepts (Amsel, 1989).

According to constructivists, learners are knowledge creators. The Constructivism Theory holds that individuals define the world as they understand it and use experience-based knowledge to process new information. With new information and previous experiences combined, learners are positioned to create their own meanings of situations. Schemas — what learners bring to the learning process — shape new learning. The founder of this theory was Lev Vygotsky (In Stabile & Ershler, 2016).

Vygotsky believed that social interaction is an essential aspect of cognitive development and the collaborative learning process. He explained that learners are best positioned to learn through collaboration with individuals who possess a higher level of proficiency than their own, enabling them to complete learning tasks they could not accomplish independently. The key learning concepts within this theory are the Zone of Proximal Development and the More Knowledgeable Other. Classrooms that adopt this theory focus on students' needs, with the teacher serving as a learning facilitator (In Stabile & Ershler, 2016).

According to the Humanist Theory of Learning, learning is a strategy for meeting students' potential rather than fulfilling particular targets or goals. The theory is centered on the learner as its subject and explains that learning is a process that naturally assists learners in achieving self-actualization. Humanistic learning comprises role modeling, scenario modeling, exploration, experience, and observation as critical elements (Veugelers, 2011). Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is an important learning concept within this theory.

The Humanist Theory emphasizes the individual as a whole — particularly the affective and cognitive needs of the student. The theory entrusts learners to create their own goals, set meaningful standards, and assess their own work. As a result, learners form the focus of classrooms that use this approach. Teachers, coaches, and facilitators identify each learner's distinct needs and support their social and academic growth (Veugelers, 2011).

Conclusion

Learning theories help explain how people learn and how knowledge is formed. They range from the Behaviorist to the Cognitive theories of learning and beyond. Although assessing learning theories is not always about determining whether they are correct or incorrect, they can be evaluated for their usefulness in educational practice. Learning theories — together with the educational technologies and approaches related to them — help teachers plan, create, and deliver effective learning and teaching experiences for students. Theoretical learning frameworks can inform the selection of learning technologies or tools, shape teaching practices, and guide the design of student activities.

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