Sophocles and Sexton: Divinity, Power, and Metamorphosis

Introduction: Man, Gods, and Society in Sophocles

Philosophers and writers across the ages have contemplated the individual's relationship with his or her environment. In Oedipus Rex and Antigone, Sophocles explores the relationship an individual has with the world and society. In each of these plays, Sophocles juxtaposes divinity and humanity and investigates the role of each within Theban society, as well as the conflicts that arise when the laws of man clash with divine laws. Through their narratives, Oedipus Rex and Antigone posit that man is intended to serve others, including the gods, and that human beings do not exist merely to be self-serving.

Oedipus Rex: Subservience, Sacrifice, and Heroism

Oedipus Rex revolves around an eponymous anti-hero who, by saving the city of Thebes from a Sphinx, inadvertently and simultaneously brought forth a plague upon it. By defeating the Sphinx, Oedipus secured his place upon the Theban throne and, as such, was not only responsible for ensuring laws were obeyed, but was also responsible for protecting Thebes' citizens. Because of the plague that has befallen Thebes, its citizens turn to Oedipus for help, contending that he is a champion of both the city and the gods. The citizens argue, "We have not come as suppliants to this altar / because we thought of you as God, / but rather judging you the first of men / in all the chances of this life and when / we mortals have to do with more than man" (Sophocles, Oedipus Rex, p. 12). It is clear that the citizens of Thebes regard Oedipus as a person of great power — divine and political — and that they hold him responsible for their overall well-being. Moreover, the citizens argue that he is "held / with God's assistance to have saved our lives," which further emphasizes how they look upon Oedipus and consider him not only their leader, but also someone who has been graced by the gods (12).

Likewise, Oedipus accepts the responsibilities of a leader and protector of Thebes and does everything in his power to restore order. In order to determine the best way to help Thebes, Oedipus dispatches his brother-in-law Creon "to Apollo / to his Pythian temple, / that he may learn there by what act or word / I could save this city" (13). By sending Creon to Apollo's temple, he acknowledges that, like all other men, he is subservient to the gods, and he trusts they will be able to help him in his latest quest. While Oedipus does not recognize it at this point, his initial and failed attempt to circumvent a prophecy concerning himself and his father further highlights the subservience of man to gods and demonstrates that divine power and supernatural forces triumph over free will.

Additionally, Oedipus acknowledges that despite his past triumphs, he is not fully qualified to interpret Creon's message, prompting him to seek the advice of Tiresias, who, like Oedipus himself, has proven to be a conduit for the gods. Oedipus implores, "My lord, in you alone we find a champion / in you alone one that can rescue us … We are in your hands; pains are most nobly taken / to help another when you have means and power" (22, 23). By pleading with Tiresias for help in deciphering Apollo's message, Oedipus demonstrates that men are not only subservient to gods, but also subservient to other men based on status and ability.

By recognizing the importance and necessity of placing the needs of others before his own, Oedipus is transformed into a hero. He is willing to sacrifice his well-being for the well-being of Thebes, and although it emotionally, psychologically, and physically pains him to correct his past wrongs, he does the right thing and leaves Thebes so that it can be restored to its former glory.

Antigone: Power Dynamics and Divine Law

While Oedipus Rex looks into the subservient relationship of man and the gods, Antigone examines the repercussions of ignoring this relationship and of placing self-interest above the interests of others. In Antigone, three distinct power dynamics are presented. Like Oedipus Rex, Antigone explores the power dynamic between man and the gods, as well as the power dynamic between men based on their socio-political status. Additionally, a third power dynamic is introduced: the relationship between men and women. As Antigone discusses her intentions with her sister Ismene, Ismene attempts to dissuade her by arguing, "You ought to realize we are only women / not meant in nature to fight against men, / and that we are ruled, by those who are stronger, / to obedience in this and even more painful matters" (Sophocles, Antigone, 163). Ismene's argument is notable for several reasons. She contends that individuals should not necessarily do what is right, but rather should do as they are told. Her argument also introduces the concept that women are subservient to men because it is considered unnatural for the two sexes to be equal, and because women are expected to submit to those who are stronger. The introduction of sex as a factor in determining an individual's role and position in the world allows the reader to understand that power did not derive solely from the gods or from rulers, but was also shaped by gender.

However, because "the savage spirit of a savage father" revealed itself in Antigone, she was adamant about doing what was right regardless of strength — whether bestowed by sex or social status (179). Antigone is unwilling to accept that strength alone determines what is right and what is wrong. She contends that what is right is not always lawful, yet she is willing to risk her life to ensure both her brothers receive proper burials. Antigone declares, "I myself shall bury [Polynices]. It will be good / to die, so doing … I shall be a criminal — but a religious one" (163–164). Furthermore, because of her family's past and what happened to her father Oedipus, Antigone understands the consequences of attempting to defy the gods and the devastating ramifications that await in the afterlife if certain divine rites are not performed. She may therefore be more willing to face the consequences of disobeying man's laws than those of disobeying divine law. This is further supported in her exchange with Ismene, when she states, "It is not for him to keep me from my own," asserting her belief in a higher authority that must be obeyed (163).

When confronted by Creon about her disregard for his laws, Antigone elaborates her position: "[It] was not Zeus that made the proclamation; / nor did Justice, which lives with those below, enact / such laws as that for mankind. I did not believe / your proclamation had such power to enable / one who will someday die to override / God's ordinances, unwritten and secure" (178). Unlike Creon, Antigone understands that man is subservient to the gods above all else, and that it is not man's place — or in this case Creon's — to attempt to override what is sacred. Antigone holds that man's laws affect individuals only while they are alive, whereas divine laws will govern an individual for eternity.

Anne Sexton's Daphne: Eros, Myth, and Metamorphosis

Anne Sexton's "Where I Live in This Honorable House of the Laurel Tree," although written in the twentieth century, echoes themes found in both Classical and Romantic poetry. In the poem, Sexton attempts to provide a voice for Daphne, a nymph who, in an attempt to escape Apollo, was transformed into a laurel tree. Through its narrative, Sexton incorporates the concepts of Eros, myth, and metamorphosis, as well as transcendence, allowing Daphne — the poem's inferred narrator — to voice her discontents.

The sorrow and lamentation felt by the unnamed Daphne is a consequence of being transformed from a free-roaming nymph who was relentlessly pursued by Apollo — who, like many characters in Ovid's Metamorphoses, was a victim of Eros. In the poem, Daphne regrets her hasty call for help and her subsequent transformation into a tree. It can be argued that both Daphne and Apollo are victims of Eros, whose influence drove Apollo to pursue Daphne and ultimately led to her transformation. While the poem's contents do not reveal how Apollo felt about pursuing Daphne or whether he was attracted to her beyond Eros' interference, it is evident that Daphne feels she was unprepared for — and perhaps caught off guard by — Apollo's advances. Daphne now confesses a "late desire to arm the trees" she inhabits and embrace Apollo (7). Paradoxically, Eros appears to have afflicted Daphne as well: she not only lusts for Apollo, who is no longer present to be the object of her affections, but through her repeated lamentations over lost companionship and the incalculable passage of time, she also demonstrates a longing to go back and undo what she did to herself and to Apollo.

Transformation, or metamorphosis, in the poem can be observed on two distinct levels. On one level, the poem centers on the physical transformation Daphne underwent. She states, "I live in my wooden legs and O / my green hands" (1–2). By continuing, "blood moves still in my bark bound veins," Daphne allows the reader to understand that she was not merely changed into a tree, but that her life and psyche were transferred into her new form (5). On a second level, metamorphosis is expressed through Daphne's lament over her hasty reaction to Apollo's courtship. While she was initially opposed to his advances, Daphne now mourns that it is "Too late / to wish I had not run from you, Apollo" (3–4). She also contends, "You gave me honor too soon, Apollo," implying she was not prepared to be the object of his affection at the time (22). It can further be argued that Daphne's emotional transformation is driven by the realization that she is now utterly alone and has lost everything she had ever known.

Transformation is also observable in how the world around Daphne changes. According to Daphne, so much time has passed since her transformation that she has lost track of it: "The measure that I have lost silks my pulse" and "Each century the trickeries / of need pain me everywhere" (8–10). In addition to the passage of time, Daphne alludes to the changing of the seasons by describing how "Frost taps [her] skin and [she stays] glossed / in honor for [Apollo] [is] gone in time" (11–12). Through this imagery, Daphne conveys that although time passes and the seasons change, she remains constant — "glossed / in honor" — and that while "The air / rings for [Apollo]" and builds "the air with the crown of honor; it keys / [her] out of time and luckless appetite," her enduring arboreal existence serves only as a reminder of what she sacrificed (20–22).

Conclusion: Love, Loss, and the Weight of Transformation

Sexton's "Where I Live in This Honorable House of the Laurel Tree" emphasizes the negative repercussions of Eros and metamorphosis and demonstrates how a singular experience can cause an individual or being to transcend beyond what others know, by virtue of the unique impact that experience carries. Moreover, Sexton successfully continues the tradition of incorporating mythological characters and allegories into poetry — a tradition stretching back to Ovid — and creates a coherent narrative of love and loss as expressed by the figure most affected by Eros' trickery.

Works Cited

Sophocles. Antigone. The Complete Greek Tragedies. Eds. David Grene and Richard Lattimore. 2nd Edition. Chicago: University Press, 1991. pp. 160–212.

—. Oedipus Rex. The Complete Greek Tragedies. Eds. David Grene and Richard Lattimore. 2nd Edition. Chicago: University Press, 1991. pp. 10–76.