Trinidad Carnival: History, Culture, and Freedom

Introduction: The Greatest Show on Earth

The Trinidad and Tobago Carnival, celebrated the week before Ash Wednesday every year, is among the largest and most popular in the world. According to the Trinidad and Tobago official website, this annual event is unrivaled globally: "There is no experience on earth to compare with Trinidad Carnival, the oldest and greatest of them all, the mother of all Carnivals, often imitated, never equaled" (Trinidad & Tobago Official Website). It would be hard to argue with that. Out of a population of just over one million, more than 100,000 participants dress up in masquerades, "singing, dancing, and miming," thus keeping the tradition going strong to the present day (Hill 3).

Rich in history and a reflection of that history, the Carnival continues to evolve, with recent additions such as Peter Minshall's dancing mobiles serving as the latest chapter in a long story of creative reinvention. A symbol of freedom and a celebration of liberation from slavery, the Trinidad and Tobago Carnival is significant to the island as a deeply rooted cultural institution. Yet Carnival is not merely a celebration — it is also an outlet for commentary on the important issues affecting Trinidad.

Colonial Roots and the Origins of Carnival

Trinidad's history has had a profound influence on its Carnival, continuously shaping the event across the centuries. Trinidad was discovered by Columbus in 1498 and ruled by Spain for 300 years as an extremely "underdeveloped" possession (Cowley 9). In the late 18th century, Charles III decided to "rejuvenate" the colonies and invited Catholics to settle, resulting in French planters bringing enslaved people to work on new estates (Cowley 9). This policy, enacted in 1783, helped to increase the small population of the islands and entrenched a French culture in Trinidad (Cowley 1985). The French held "elaborate masked balls," and despite the British takeover in 1797, French culture remained dominant (Gilkes 2003).

This French cultural presence was partly the result of enslaved people who had been born on French islands, bringing with them an African, French, and Caribbean amalgam of culture that was not diluted by the arrival of new enslaved people from Africa (Cowley 10). These developments beginning in 1783 marked "a development of great consequence in the history of the island and to the institution of carnival," setting the stage for the creation of Carnival in Trinidad (Hill 7). As tight regulations kept social and racial classes separate, people of African descent created a parallel society that reflected — and challenged — the culture of the white elite class (Cowley 11). Africans used celebrations to express discontent with social divisions; the Shand Estate Revolt of Christmas 1805 is one example of how festivals during holidays became opportunities for cultural and political expression.

The most significant event, however, was the abolition of slavery in 1834, which created a class of 22,000 free men and was followed by immigration of new people from China, the United States, and the African coast (Hill 9). Coupled with the tradition of masquerade balls, Christmas celebrations, French influence from New Orleans, and socially motivated reasons to celebrate, the historical atmosphere of Trinidad set the stage for a rich Carnival culture.

Emancipation and the Rise of Carnival Culture

Following the freeing of the enslaved, Carnivals erupted in Trinidad and Tobago. As one contemporary letter complained, "the custom of keeping Carnival, by allowing the lower order of society to run about the Streets in wretched masquerade, belongs to other days and ought to be abolished in our own" — a reaction that itself reflects the growth in street celebrations after emancipation (Gilkes 2003). It was after emancipation that Carnival continued to proliferate and the Black presence in Trinidad continued to express its dissatisfaction with the white establishment.

Although ritualistic celebrations had been prevalent since the days of French immigration, it was after the abolition of slavery that Carnival began to assume "the role of satirical parody and other rituals associated with the masquerade, in both European and African settings" (Cowley 1985). This development illustrates the influence of both African and European customs on Trinidad Carnival, and military bands became an institution of Carnival (Hill 14). At this point, a wide range of influences converged: competing Creole masquerade bands, mockery of European customs, and stick fighting, which was probably of African origin (Hill 25). The use of molasses to cover the body, for example, was one adopted custom serving as a freedom symbol within the masquerade (Hill 24).

Racial tensions remained prevalent as Carnival celebrators maintained a sense of their African heritage. A key event in 1881 illustrates this tension: a new commander, Captain Baker, took over the police force and sought to crack down on celebrations. During the popular Canboulay celebrations — which commemorated the burning of cane fields on slave plantations and the communal effort of enslaved people to put out the fires — Carnival celebrators carried torches through the streets against Baker's wishes. Rioters clashed with police, and despite the violence, the Carnival continued (Gilkes 2003). Celebrators subsequently mocked the police in future parades, and tensions between authorities and participants continued throughout the 19th century. The Trinidad Carnival was thus shaped by its history as a slave plantation island, and the social and racial tensions of that era contributed fundamentally to the practice of Carnival.

Calypso: The Voice of Carnival

An important addition to Trinidad Carnival around this period was calypso music. Originating from West African enslaved people who were forced to use song to communicate and mock their enslavers, calypso developed over the years and became an integral part of Carnival. Present in masquerade since 1838, it came to define a distinctly Trinidadian carnival song (Hill 61). These songs often took on political meanings; one such song, "Majouba Hill," referred to the Boer War as marchers dressed as an attacking army "led by their calypsonian" (Hill 61).

Although the marchers remained loyal to the Crown, increased restrictions were placed on celebrations over the years. It was in this context that in the late 19th century and early 20th century, calypso became more significant, adopting its name and the English language. Calypsonians began to compose lyrics in advance as the Carnival developed, and competitions emerged as performers were recognized for both their songs and their costumes. Richard Coeur de Lion, for example, represented English history in his song and was noted for his elaborate costume as he sang his interpretation of history, backed by a choir (Hill 64).

These satirical songs became a defining feature of Trinidad Carnival, though not necessarily unique to Trinidad. Rivalries between bands of masqueraders were an important part of the tradition and continue to this day (Cowley 1985). Calypso took on an increasingly political meaning over the years, and singers were often forced to be enigmatic in their lyrics. In the 1930s, for example, there was "a return of police censorship of the calypso" (Hill 67). Nevertheless, calypso remained an important aspect of Carnival — not only for its considerable entertainment value, but for its storytelling, political influence, and the individual "point of view of the life experience" expressed in its lyrics (Hill 68).

Conclusion: Freedom, Expression, and Enduring Tradition

The historical development of Carnival as an integral part of Trinidad and Tobago's history has led to its authenticity and its deserving title as "the greatest show on earth" (Trinidad & Tobago Official Website). Today there are numerous competitions, commercial recordings, and artists who dedicate their lives to expression as the scope and impact of Carnival has only grown over the years. "It has given birth to new music and song, to language and dance, to costumes and masks," and is thus an incredible artistic achievement (Hill 119). More important, however, is that the Carnival has developed from the very forces that have shaped Trinidad and Tobago — slavery, emancipation, repression, immigration, and much more. The Carnival, despite its evolution, remains a window into the history of the island nation.

The official Trinidad and Tobago website describes Carnival as a moment when "something extraordinary occurs in this nation. Barriers fall. Rank ceases to matter. Something more fundamental and important suffuses the air. It is a recognition of the human need to recreate. To play. To suspend the superficial world of commerce, gossip and politics for a time, and let deeper values predominate." This idealistic vision, however, does not fully capture the truth: Carnival is a time that, historically, has been profoundly influenced by the processes of history. Its development has coincided with and reflected Trinidad and Tobago's social and political trajectory at every stage.

That is precisely why the Carnival is so often the subject of imitation, yet the original cannot be matched. Strong and varied influences — French and African traditions, colonization, slavery, and political repression — have meshed to create a unique annual celebration. As one scholar has noted, "the function and structure... varied from year to year depending on the social conditions appertaining," confirming that Carnival is indeed a reflection of the conditions affecting Trinidad and Tobago, rooted in the history of the late 18th century (Cowley 1985). Even today it remains a subject of controversy, and that will not change, for by its very nature Carnival celebrates freedom while challenging the norms of its day. It is a celebration of freedom, but it is also an outlet for expression — expression in its highest artistic form. Trinidad Carnival, because of its rich and varied history, truly is "the outstanding folk festival of the Western World" (Crowley 1954).

Works Cited

"Carnival: The Greatest Show on Earth." Trinidad & Tobago Official Website. 2001. 28 Feb 2007.

Cowley, John. "Carnival in Trinidad." The Magazine for Traditional Music throughout the World. 1995. 27 Feb 2007.

Cowley, John. Carnival, Canboulay and Calypso. Cambridge, GB: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

Crowley, Daniel J. "The Meanings of Carnival." The Clarion. 27 Feb 1954.

Darway, Norma. "De things dat changed de stigma." The Story of the Steelpan. 1 March 2005. 25 Feb 2007.

Fraser, Tony. "Is Trinidad Carnival Vulgar?" BBC Caribbean. 31 March 2006. 27 Feb 2007.

Gilkes, Corey. "Trinidad Carnival: Afri-Caribbean Resistance." Trinidad Center. 23 Feb 2003. 28 Feb 2007.

Hill, Errol. The Trinidad Carnival. Austin, TX & London: University of Texas Press, 1972.

"Native Trinidadian, Carnival Spokesman and 21st Century Arts Pioneer." Peter Minshall. Jan 2007. 26 Feb 2007.