Utilitarianism as a Framework for Environmental Ethics

Introduction

Is utilitarianism an effective approach to environmental ethics? Behaviors that demonstrate personal and collective responsibility to the environment can lead to tangible short-term and long-term objectives that benefit a large number of people. Reducing pollution, limiting deforestation, preserving natural resources, protecting sensitive ecosystems, and mitigating climate change bring about the greatest good for the greatest number — what John Stuart Mill (2017) refers to as summum bonum, the fundamental principle of utilitarianism (p. 1). Therefore, most environmentally conscious policies, business practices, and personal behaviors can be viewed in utilitarian terms.

Explanation of Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethical theory, which essentially means that its proponents focus more on the consequences of actions than on the motivations for those actions (Haines, n.d.). There are several types of utilitarianism, including act-utilitarianism and rule-utilitarianism. Act utilitarianism suggests that any act is morally right when it leads to consequences that are better than — or no worse than — any other potential action (Singer, 2003). Rule consequentialism suggests that any act is morally right when it follows rules that reflect the best interest of society (Haines, n.d.).

The foremost founder of the comprehensive theory of ethical utilitarianism is John Stuart Mill. Mill thoroughly outlined the core principles of utilitarianism, discussing the importance of promoting human happiness and pleasure as central ethical goals. Moreover, Mill traced the origins of utilitarianism to Epicureanism, the ancient Greek philosophy that stressed the value of higher human pleasures — such as the pleasure inherent in learning, freedom, or peace. Once happiness or pleasure is established as a reasonable aim of all ethical theories, then all acts can and should be evaluated purely with regard to whether they cause happiness or whether they cause pain. An act that causes happiness has ethical merit or utility; likewise, an act that causes pain does not. Acts can also be ranked according to how much happiness they create among all affected persons, as measured by the "greatest happiness principle" (Mill, 2017, p. 5). The greatest happiness principle can also be applied to broader ethical problems, such as evaluating an act according to whether it leads to more people experiencing positive results. According to utilitarian principles, an act that benefits one million people would be preferable to an act that benefits only ten people.

Application to Environmental Ethics

Utilitarianism has sometimes been used to justify resource exploitation by focusing on short-term gains rather than on the long-term impacts of human economic activity or industrial development. Yet there is nothing inherent in utilitarianism that necessitates a short-term or narrow focus. Utilitarianism offers the potential for a more robust ethical heuristic — one that demonstrates that the long-term promotion of human health and well-being is directly dependent on environmental responsibility. Short-term economic growth also benefits relatively few people, mainly those who already possess wealth and power. The vast majority of people on the planet are without such wealth and power. To promote the greatest good for the greatest number, it becomes necessary to promote sustainable economic growth — that is, growth that occurs in accordance with the well-being of the broadest possible population. As Wolff (2008) points out, "When anthropocentric arguments are used to defend destructive and unsustainable environmental policies, the benefits to humans are nearly always exaggerated and/or the costs of environmental degradation to present and future human beings are underestimated" (p. 10). Utilitarianism shows that it is unethical for governments and corporations to be the primary beneficiaries of resource exploitation or policies enabling deforestation and pollution.

Furthermore, utilitarianism shows that it is unethical to engage in any human activity that destroys the beauty, integrity, or health of an ecosystem. The environment has inherent value and utility — not just as a resource that can be used for economic purposes, but also as a source of pleasure for people. People derive pleasure from playing and swimming on a clean beach, from walking through a pristine rainforest, or from drinking from a clean mountain stream. On the contrary, people experience suffering when they live in polluted environments, when their food sources are threatened, when weather patterns create safety hazards, and when their water is contaminated by industrial waste.

Viewed from a utilitarian perspective, environmental responsibility is an ethical act. It is ethical to act in accordance with environmental sustainability because doing so promotes clean air and water, which can be enjoyed by far more people than polluted air and water. It is also ethical to act responsibly toward the environment because the acts of each individual or corporation have the potential to impact people in other regions of the world.