Career Development for Youth: Challenges, Theories, and Mental Health

Population Overview: Children and Teenagers Ages 5–18

The selected population is children and teenagers between the ages of 5 and 18. This population is at the developmental stage under compulsory education government programs, with college representing the upper age limit. The population is either preparing for a career through education or pursuing tertiary education in their areas of aspiration. Notably, this population has limited self-agency in pursuing education in their areas of interest; they rely on government programs and parental assistance and guidance for educational attainment. The young population's parents' geographical, social, and cultural environment greatly impacts their career choices (International Labour Organization, 2020). This population falls under Gen Z, which is three times more likely to be unemployed than adults, partly due to lack of experience when applying for entry-level jobs and the structural barriers that prevent young individuals from entering the labor market. These barriers disproportionately affect individuals from low socioeconomic backgrounds due to a weak educational foundation, adverse environments, and low income.

The compulsory educational requirements in this age group involve the K-12 educational program. At the early stages of development — between 5 and 12 years — this population is not required to work under child protection rights. More often, between 12 and 16 years, teenagers acquire employment opportunities as part-time workers. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2021), the unemployment rate for this population dropped to 46.7% in 2020 from 56.2% in 2019. The employment rate for the population between 16 and 24 years in 2021 was 10%, dropping from 18.5% in 2020. The emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic correlated with an increase in unemployment rates. The pandemic produced an economic lockdown that led to school closures and limited engagement in compulsory learning for the population in K-12 and college programs, while simultaneously creating more time for some of these young people to work.

Emerging adults face many career-related decisions involved in selecting a career and securing employment. These challenges can lead to distress and frustration, which in turn can produce mental health problems such as depression and drug abuse (Prescod et al., 2019). While the motivation for admission into higher education is to enhance employability, Greenbank (2011) argues it is surprising that this population does not more consistently engage in activities that support career decision-making — such as extracurricular activities — that would enable them to compete more effectively in the labor market. Nevertheless, these individuals are uniquely positioned to develop strong decision-making skills, lower their risk of mental health challenges, and achieve a greater sense of accomplishment if they build competency in career decision-making.

Career Challenges and Employment Trends in Youth

Over half of the U.S. population comprises Gen Z, millennials, or younger generations. The country's economic viability depends on this population's access to educational pathways, civic engagement opportunities, and early employment to earn income and develop careers. However, low wages, involuntary disconnection from work, and insufficient working hours increase poverty rates and the risk of mental health challenges, and reduce young people's prospects of building sustainable careers. The involuntary disconnection from school and work increases after high school graduation. According to Bird et al. (2021), approximately one percent of 18-year-olds are disconnected from career development opportunities; this figure rises to five percent at age 20 and twelve percent at age 26.

In a 2019 report by the Brookings Institution titled "Meet the Low-Wage Workforce," seven million workers among emerging adults were found to be out of school and lacking a post-secondary degree, leaving them with limited job prospects. Due to these educational limitations, they earn a median hourly wage of $8.55 and an annual income of approximately $12,700, directed toward supporting a low-income lifestyle and funding further education. The poverty rate for individuals under 24 years was 13.3%, which encompasses the working teenage population and exceeds the 10.5% rate among adults (Bird et al., 2021). Minority communities face an even greater disadvantage due to exposure to additional structural, sociocultural, and economic barriers to employment and education.

In July 2020, the unemployment rate for young people from minority communities was 45%. The majority of the 5-to-18 age group in minority communities come from low socioeconomic backgrounds that limit their opportunities to excel academically and reduce their chances of employability beyond high school (Bird et al., 2021). Furthermore, many reside in disenfranchised neighborhoods with high crime rates, low per capita income, and a high prevalence of undiagnosed psychological conditions, including alcohol addiction. Such challenges limit the ability of children between 5 and 12 years to develop a suitable educational foundation, with lower literacy rates common in these communities.

As a result, the chances of these young people advancing in education beyond high school — compared to students from higher socioeconomic communities — are significantly reduced. Often, this population begins working low-wage jobs to support their families and, in some cases, to fund vocational or career training (Greenbank, 2011). Early engagement with the world of work — through summer employment, year-round part-time roles, service opportunities, and internships — is critical to their development. Early employment is a core indicator of success in adult employment for those who work during their teenage years.

In studies conducted in the U.S., U.K., and Australia, teenagers who combined full-time study with part-time work were expected to perform better as adults in the job market than their peers, notwithstanding academic qualifications and background. They were also reported to have routinely higher earnings and shorter periods of unemployment. A study using data from the U.S. Youth Development Study found a positive relationship between working part-time at ages 14 and 15 and a subjective sense of accomplishment in adulthood (International Labour Organization, 2020). However, working excessive hours can result in poor academic performance. Consequently, governments have taken the initiative to increase student involvement in work through educational programs focusing on career development, including work experience placements. Effective career guidance helps students reflect on who they are and who they would like to become, and evaluate the relationship between their educational choices and future economic life.

In OECD member countries, including the U.S., education departments have taken the initiative to integrate graduate skills development into the curriculum and made such classes available to students across grade levels. This approach focuses on providing careers education, information, and guidance (CEIG) through specialist careers modules, careers services, and personal development planning (Greenbank, 2011). Such strategies aim to raise awareness about career paths and options and encourage students to proactively develop a graduate profile aligned with employer expectations. These interventions are designed to increase employment rates and reduce the risk of psychological distress in this population.

Federal government investment in workforce development has declined over the past two decades, limiting access to resources that many young people need to advance their careers. This reduction has constrained access to education and higher education required to develop marketable skills and, consequently, economic opportunity. The COVID-19 pandemic led to the loss of critical work experience and income. While Congress implemented some interventions over the past year, these efforts have not fully addressed the ongoing challenges this age group continues to experience.