¶ … Learning Theories and Models One of the earliest types of learning theory is that of behaviorist theory, made famous by theorists such as B.F. Skinner. Although Skinner formalized the principles of behaviorism down to a science, at its core behaviorism is based upon simple 'carrot and stick' theory learning, namely that students are punished when they are incorrect and rewarded when they produce the desired response -- or in the workplace where workers are docked pay when they are late and rewarded with a bonus if they sell more widgets.

Cognitive theories of learning, as the name suggests, are based in the belief that "knowledge is actively constructed by learners and that any account of knowledge makes essential references to cognitive structures" (Behaviorism, 2011, Teaching guide for graduate instructors). Skinner used schedules of reinforcement in the form of operant conditioning to train animals to run mazes and push buttons by rewarding them with food for the correct response (positive reinforcement) and/or reinforcing negative behaviors with an unpleasant stimulus such as the absence of food. Reinforcement may be consistent (given every time the behavior is exhibited) or inconsistent (given occasionally when the desired response is offered by the subject). In some instances, behaviors similar to the eventual desired response may be praised and rewarded, to shape the behaviors of the subject (usually this is done with more complex skills).

Of course, in the classroom, teachers cannot give the students candy every time a math problem is completed correctly or the students sit at their desks in silence. However, many behaviorist principles are still evident in the classroom. "Behaviorist teaching methods tend to rely on so-called 'skill and drill; exercises to provide the consistent repetition necessary for effective reinforcement of response patterns. Other methods include question (stimulus) and answer (response) frameworks in which...

In contrast, constructivist theory (a cognitive approach to learning) suggests that students must be the 'authors' of their own, individualized process of learning acquisition. It stresses 'learning how to learn' rather than making the content of learning the primary focus of schooling. "Teachers help students to construct knowledge rather than to reproduce a series of facts. The constructivist teacher provides tools such as problem-solving and inquiry-based learning activities with which students formulate and test their ideas, draw conclusions and inferences, and pool and convey their knowledge in a collaborative learning environment" (Constructivism as a paradigm for teaching and learning, 2013, Concept to Classroom). Teachers may even allow students to get an answer 'wrong' at first, asking probing questions to allow the student to recognize why the answer is incorrect him or herself, rather than deploying the negative reinforcement emphasized by behaviorism.
One of the most noteworthy educators in the history of constructivism is that of Vygotsky and his theory of the "zone of proximal learning, according to which students solve problems beyond their actual developmental level (but within their level of potential development) under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers" (Constructivism as a paradigm for teaching and learning, 2013, Concept to Classroom). Like behaviorists, Vygotsky did agree that learning built upon past concepts, but believed that the learning process should be shaped according to the needs and existing knowledge of the student, which…