Almost all contemporary political theory and political philosophy can be traced to a handful of essential source texts, including those written thousands of years ago. Plato’s Republic and his Protagoras dialogue also include elements of metaphysical and ethical analysis, but remain primarily purposeful for their instruction in political discourse. Pericles’s famous funeral oration delivered to those who had sacrificed their lives for Athens provides the basis for patriotism. The funeral oration lays the groundwork for how modern nation-states cultivate the loyalty of their citizens. The principles contained in the works of Greek political thinkers like Plato and Pericles are echoed in the landmark work by Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince. One of the premier texts on political theory and philosophy, Machiavelli’s The Prince remains remarkably relevant centuries after it was written, in spite of dramatic changes in the geo-political landscape, culture, and worldview. In spite of a few anachronisms, all four of these seminal texts remain relevant, showing that liberal democracies in the 21st century have changed surprisingly little and are unlikely to change in the future. Each of these four texts are concerned with government and the systems and institutions that support it. Good governance is, however, defined slightly differently by each author. Machiavelli remains a stalwart realist in his approach to politics and governance, advocating a pragmatic approach rather than one that is based on ethical principles. For all his talk about ethics, though, Socrates is also a realist. As a character in both Plato’s Republic and Plato’s Protagoras, Socrates believes, as does Machiavelli, that some individuals are simply better suited for political leadership than others, and that some personality traits lend themselves better for effective rule or governance. While Socrates would disagree with Machiavelli’s claim that a good ruler “is often forced to act treacherously, ruthlessly, or inhumanely, and disregard the precepts of religion,” even Machiavelli believes that a good ruler will “not deviate from right conduct if possible,” (62). Machiavelli’s text is often misunderstood, as it is presumed that the author advocates violence and treachery. In fact, what Machiavelli says about leaders rings true, as it is the primary means by which new leaders do need to establish their presence and gain respect. Even if Americans shudder when they read Machiavelli, their own political leaders have exhibited violence that was disguised as beneficence, waging war in the best interests of the state.

The concept of war being in the best interest of the state is also addressed fully by Pericles in his funeral oration. The purpose of the funeral oration is to celebrate the sacrifices made by those who gave their lives in the service of Athens, essentially their country. Pericles’s descriptions of Athens are eerily similar to the ways Americans refer to their own nation. For example, Pericles writes, “We throw open our city to the world, and never by alien acts exclude foreigners from any opportunity of learning or observing, although...

3-4). Just as modern American politicians claim that the war on terror is required to preserve values like liberty and justice around the world, Pericles stated the same, noting that those who fight for Athens are fighting for the very values Athens represented: including freedom and liberty. Remarkably, Pericles discusses the character of Athenian democracy as implying that all persons—even “ordinary citizens, though occupied with the pursuits of industry,” can participate fully in the political process and are “fair judges of public matters,” (3). Pericles waxes poetic about Athens in the same ways Americans wax poetic about their own political culture. For example, Pericles states, “the freedom which we enjoy in our government extends also to our ordinary life,” (14). Here, Pericles directly refers to the ways Athenian citizens are free to do as they like, as long as their actions do not harm others. “All this ease in our private relations does not make us lawless as citizens,” (Pericles 14). Freedom in society is based on the belief that a well-educated and informed populace enables each person to act intelligently, which means acting virtuously. The principle of virtue and its political importance is the primary topic being debated in Plato’s discourse Protagoras.
Contemporary societies often avoid discussions of virtue, as virtue is more frequently discussed in religious circles. Virtue is not as nebulous a quality as it seems, especially as Socrates explains it. For one, virtue is equated with intelligence. Second, virtue is linked with associated valuable traits like courage, wisdom, and self-discipline or temperance. While it may seem Machiavelli only values courage and intelligence, his astute analysis of successful leaders in The Prince proves otherwise. Machiavelli values temperance and self-discipline every bit as much as ruthlessness in leadership. A good leader, one who wishes to maintain power and stability, needs to exercise discipline. In Chapter 8 of The Prince, Machiavelli directly equates the concept of virtue—central to Socrates’s philosophy—with temperance: “Yet it cannot be called virtue to kill one’s fellow-citizens, to betray one’s friends, to be treacherous, merciless, and irreligious; power may be gained by acting in such ways, but not glory,” (p. 31). The word virtue might seem anachronistic or outdated to modern ears, but contemporary citizens might not object to referring to a person as being honest, having integrity, or having good character. These are the essential elements of good leadership in any society or even in the private sector. A non-virtuous person can gain power quickly, like Machiavelli implies, but that power will be short-lived largely because ordinary people respect virtue. Donald Trump is a good example of a virtuous person who acquired power in what Machiavelli calls a “civil principality,” the subject of Chapter 9 of The Prince.

All four authors discuss the nature of democratic rule, including Machiavelli. In Chapter 9 of The…