Actor-Network Theory as a Framework for Cybercrime

Introduction

Cyberterrorism, illegal (and legal) espionage, piracy, and cybercrimes differ from their pre-digital counterparts in serious and meaningful ways. First, the nature of online social interactions diverges from that of face-to-face or even voice-only interactions due to the shield of anonymity. Second, technological prophylactics ranging from encryption to skillful network architecture can add multiple levels of protection for perpetrators while exposing weaknesses in a less technologically sophisticated consumer public. Third, the rapid advancement of artificially intelligent systems creates new possibilities and problems, as non-human actors become part of increasingly complex systems. Finally, digital media has enabled formal and informal surveillance and other forms of illicit behavior, transforming the relationships between actors and objects in ways that can alter political and social realities.

Actor-network theory is an ideal lens through which to better understand the complex gamut of cybercrime. Developed initially in the 1980s and solidified in the 1990s, actor-network theory views technology within a social science framework. With actor-network theory, technology and media are both viewed as extensions of social and cultural realities, which is why the theory can potentially offer solutions to the problems of cybercrime.

Theoretical Framework

Actor-network theory is an ideal framework for studying the causes, mechanisms, and ramifications of cybercrime, as well as for offering potential solutions. The theory is "versatile and well-suited for dealing with the complex interplay of human-technological digital relationships" (Lippicini, 2014, p. 38). Lin and Lippicini (2011) also point out that actor-network theory can be applied to small and closed networks as well as large and open ones. Perhaps most importantly, actor-network theory has the capacity to address problematic issues related to artificial intelligence and the relationships between humans and non-human actors that frequently characterize both cybercrimes and responses to cybercrime.

Another reason actor-network theory is an ideal framework for understanding cybercrime is its systemic approach: the theory sheds light on the inextricable connections among various social structures, institutions, individuals, and identities. Moreover, actor-network theory touches upon a central issue in criminology and the sociology of crime — the issue of power. According to the premises of actor-network theory, all entities within any given network acquire power in several core but relatively stable ways: particularly through the "number, extensiveness, and stability of the connections routed through them, and through nothing else" (Couldry, 2004, p. 1). Actor-network theory does not become bogged down by semiotics; instead, it can offer pragmatic and practical solutions to problems like cybercrime. For instance, many of the most serious cybercrimes occur trans-nationally, and actor-network theory aids the development of cogent solutions to cyberterrorism, hacking, espionage, and other international events.

Review of Literature

A review of the literature demonstrates how actor-network theory has already been applied to cybercrime and cybercriminality. Muller (2015) fuses the concept of assemblage with actor-network theory to provide a new approach to international relations that recognizes the centrality of digital networks. Digital networks, like all other social networks, possess an organic nature. When non-human entities are introduced — including artificially intelligent systems — the complexity of networks can complicate solutions to cybercrimes. Although actor-network theory "risks describing endless chains of associations without ever arriving at an explanation," the theory does not oversimplify the issues related to cybercrime and cyberterrorism (Muller, 2015, p. 30). Muller's (2015) analysis of actor-network theory as it applies to international relations and politics underscores the relevance of the theory for trans-national cybercrimes.

Lin and Lippicini (2014) apply actor-network theory directly to cybercrimes related to espionage. The authors note that the fundamental ethical conundrums of cyberspace involve four main areas of concern: privacy, accuracy, property, and access (Lin & Lippicini, 2014). Using a case study of GhostNet, the authors show how an espionage enterprise violates the ethical terms of privacy and access. Privacy is a presumed right in a democracy, whereas access refers more overtly to social structures and power negotiations. Access is a much-debated subject in the social science of technology; access to information related to protection from cybercrime is less commonly discussed. Lin and Lippicini (2014) also identify the main ways actor-network theory can be applied to cybercrimes — such as by focusing on the behaviors and perpetrators or on the technology itself — thereby inviting future research in this particular area of concern.

Lippicini (2014) examined dozens of articles in a type of meta-analysis and integrative review of research applying actor-network theory to cybercrime. The results reveal different ways actor-network theory can be applied to various cybercrimes including theft, fraud, terrorism, espionage, and bullying. Cybertheft was broadly interpreted to include piracy of copyrighted material as well as identity theft. Research illustrates some of the psychological variables that influence actor decisions to commit cybertheft, including the social contracts unique to file-sharing websites and online communities (Lippicini, 2014). Equally complex is cyberbullying, which only on the surface resembles its in-person counterpart. As Lippicini (2014) puts it, cyberbullying is "a complex network too large and diffuse to attribute a single cause because there are multiple actors," and the same observation applies to cyberterrorism (p. 43).

Conclusion

Cybercrimes occur systemically, involving multiple complex and heterogeneous actors and victims. All crimes entail a relationship between perpetrator and victim. When viewed through the lens of critical communications theories like actor-network theory, cybercrime can be addressed far more efficiently than it is currently using outmoded methods.

Actor-network theory can comprehensively address the multitude of concerns related to cybercrime. It accounts for communication among various actors, the construction of internal logic, norms, and social mores, and the interplay between human and non-human actors. However, actor-network theory has only recently been applied to the study of international relations. Because of this, future research can explore how trans-national cybercrimes might be resolved without encroachment by government entities that are themselves often perpetrators, parties to, or victims of the crimes. Cyberterrorism and corporate cybercrimes require complex solutions, and actor-network theory presents the means by which to generate those solutions — particularly for problems such as illicit espionage and cyberterrorism.