Adult Education and Literacy for Disadvantaged Learners

Introduction: Adults as Lifelong Learners

In contemporary Western culture, many adults incorrectly assume that school and learning are processes reserved for children. Many adults believe themselves incapable of continued learning, hence the popular cliché, "You can't teach an old dog new tricks." This self-defeating belief, while less common than it was a few decades ago, is still an obstacle for many adults — particularly those who are disadvantaged — causing them to separate themselves from the educational system at large. In truth, the human brain is constantly interpreting its surroundings, and as long as it is exposed to new situations and stimuli, new neurological pathways are created. It may be easier to assimilate certain types of knowledge as a child, but it is a combination of desire and exposure that allows adults to experience learning throughout their lives. In fact, an individual who considers themselves a perpetual student is likely to feel happier, more content, and more engaged and excited about the world than someone who thinks they are either "too old" or face "too many barriers" to continue the learning process.

While education can and does occur outside of an established classroom or school system, one of the most effective ways to encourage adults to embrace learning is through adult education programs and classes. Adult education is important and significant for people of all ages and from all backgrounds. It is a way to continue to improve individually, to uncover new talents and opportunities, and to find a new career or avenue of self-actualization (Merriam et al., 2006).

Adult education is, at its core, the practice of teaching adults. This can happen in the workplace, through continuing education courses taught at the college or secondary level, or — for some subjects — at community colleges, life learning centers, libraries, or other community venues. Scholars often refer to adult learning as andragogy, as opposed to pedagogy. A further distinction is made among vocational education (typically workplace-related and focused on tasks or skills that directly impact one's career), personal development education (e.g., dance, music, scuba diving), and formal education designed to foster a new career choice or enhance one's ability to integrate more fully into the community. Within the model of adult education, a subset focuses on disadvantaged adults, who often participate in all branches of andragogy depending upon their unique situation. Beyond the typical resistance factors surrounding adult education, those adults who face economic, social, or developmental disadvantages have an even more difficult time pursuing additional educational resources (Knowles et al., 2005).

This review examines the literature and basic paradigms for two topics: (1) the perceived effectiveness of inner-city educational programs for adults, and (2) trends in education aimed at improving opportunities for disadvantaged adults.

The Landscape of Adult Education in Urban Environments

While adult education may strike many people as a new concept, and most people would guess that adult students make up a minority of the student population, it is actually extremely common and already widely embraced. The fact is that most post-high school students are enrolled in "adult" education. The majority of even undergraduate freshmen have already reached the age of eighteen and are therefore adult students. A basic associate's degree, which is not considered particularly impressive in the professional world, takes at least two years to earn. Most traditional college students are seeking a bachelor's degree — the standard for most professional career paths — which typically takes four years of study. A master's degree can take six years or more, and any doctoral degree can require eight full years of higher education. This means that even traditional "college-age" students who begin their studies immediately following high school are often approaching thirty years of age before leaving school. Helping the general population make the connection between "adult education" and the already established Western educational system may help demystify — and therefore strengthen — all forms of education (Gordon, 2002).

Particularly in inner-city urban environments, adult education for nontraditional students has grown in popularity, though it is still considered unusual by many. Nontraditional students may include adults who were unable to obtain a high school diploma, those who did not choose to enter college immediately following high school, those who have already obtained a degree and are choosing to further their learning, those who are seeking specific career or skill training, or those who are simply taking classes for personal enjoyment. Adult education can provide a second chance for many people who were unable to earn a high school diploma due to any number of circumstances; many adults return to school to earn their GED for personal fulfillment or a career boost. Many working adults choose to return to school even when already on a successful career path, finding it an enjoyable escape from workplace routine or a means of acquiring new skills. Adults who have chosen to be homemakers, or who are unable to work for some reason, can find empowerment in adult education programs that provide new knowledge and skills. Adults in higher education are exposed to a variety of people and situations, and the diversity found in the classroom can improve a person's ability to function within a diverse society. Additionally, returning to school can prevent adults from becoming isolated from current findings and modern technology that is often aimed at younger generations (Beder, 1991).

Non-Formal Education and Inner-City Innovation

It is sometimes within inner-city, urban environments that new philosophies of education emerge. Whether this is because these communities are used as testing grounds for new ideas, or simply because they are typically in greater need, there is a clear trend toward innovation and creativity rather than simply allocating more funding to the same approaches. For example, the term "non-formal" education can encompass programs that range from small-scale individualized tutoring or small group activities to large-scale city or national programs; from highly contextualized to standardized programming; from temporary learning initiatives to permanent alternatives to formal coursework; and from literacy and basic education to vocational and advanced continuing professional development. This concept arose out of the insufficiencies and criticism directed at the formal education system, which often fails those who are disadvantaged or living in areas of urban blight or economic malaise (Brookfield, 1991).

Educators quickly learned that in order to truly help adults in the inner city, several elements were necessary: greater adaptation to the needs and circumstances of learners, creative uses of educational resources, community participation, decentralized and more flexible organization and management, and less authoritarian teaching styles. As Rogers (2005) observed, "Over time, formal and non-formal education often opposed rather than complemented each other. Many saw out-of-school education as the natural place for innovation and for diversification of education and learning strategies, and in-school education as inherently rigid, homogenous, static, and resistant to change" (p. 236).

Trends within inner-city adult education can be grouped into four major program development principles:

• Keep instructors as older adults; they engender maturity and trust. This is especially true in courses focusing on computers — keep classrooms free of young computer "whizzes."
• Place emphasis on having fun, and regardless of the subject matter, utilize available technology to offer comfort and provide a secondary educational benefit.
• Socializing, peer-group acceptance, and the ability to see coursework as compatible with the urban lifestyle are critically important.
• Courses must offer a high degree of stimuli — intellectually engaging, appropriately paced (but not rushed), and drawing on relevant contemporary materials (Long, 1987, p. 104).

Conclusion: The Broader Benefits of Adult Education

Even those who strongly believe that the focus of education should be on children rather than adults should be supportive of adult education, particularly for those who face some form of disadvantage. Adult education benefits the adults who participate, but also the children, relatives, co-workers, and support networks around them. Children learn from adults; parents, teachers, and mentors of all kinds are usually adults, and the more those adults are able to engage in contemporary learning experiences, the more the process of learning will flow downward and outward to younger generations.

Also, seeing adults choose to return to a school setting and continue their education can be a powerful example for children. Adults can tell youth to "stay in school" repeatedly, but children often feel that adults cannot truly relate to the educational process and would not choose to remain in school if given a choice. An adult who is visibly in school and openly enjoying learning is far more likely to inspire a child to take education seriously than any politician's faceless "stay in school" campaign. Adult education is already commonplace in our society, but it remains under-recognized and under-appreciated (Gottesman et al., 1996).

In addition to traditional higher education, adult education programs in schools, community centers, and other organized settings are important for individuals, communities, and society as a whole. Adult education can provide a second chance to earn a high school diploma, develop new workplace skills, or discover a previously unexplored area of the arts. Adult education takes place not only in classrooms but also in everyday life, where new experiences of all kinds have the potential to educate and enrich. Adults who consciously choose to continue their education can have a positive impact on younger students through modeling a lifelong commitment to learning (Cafarella, 2001).

Society's goal should be not only to utilize its resources to allow disadvantaged people to recover some self-respect, but also to recognize that education makes them far more likely to secure genuine employment and thus require less governmental support in the long run. Like many preventive medical models, prevention is everything — and what a goal it would be to prevent illiteracy before 2020 (Fitzgerald & Young, 1997).

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