Ancient Greece and Rome: Philosophy, Empire, and Legacy

Introduction: The Roots of Western Civilization

Ancient Greek culture is widely regarded as providing the modern Western world with much of its philosophical wisdom. In many ways, the Greeks are seen as the very origin of civilization and thought as these are understood today. It is therefore easy to overlook the fact that the ancient Greeks were themselves influenced in important ways by the cultures and philosophies that preceded them. It is equally important to recognize, however, that Greek thinkers used those outside influences to create something new and unique—something upon which the world as we know it today would go on to build its own traditions and forms of thought.

Philosophical Development in Ancient Greece

Kelly L. Ross points out that the main difference between philosophy in ancient cultures and the thought governing the world before it is the element of myth. The mythic tradition, for example, concerns teaching truths through stories about persons—including gods, heroes, and ordinary people—usually involving supernatural elements to explain the nature of the world. A further feature inherent in the mythical tradition is that supernatural and divine explanations can contradict each other without any difficulty, since internal consistency is not required.

In Greek philosophy, by contrast, the element of reasoning is of the greatest importance. The validity of thought relies upon its inherent coherence and systematic nature. Opposed to the strong traditionalism behind the mythic tradition, Greek philosophy was also a testament to the potential of the human mind in its sudden and extraordinary creativity—not only regarding the physical world, but also the mental and internal thought process itself.

One of the most important elements in this development is the treatment of morality when viewed from the mythical and philosophical viewpoints. Mythic morality tended to be somewhat inconsistent, even for the gods. According to Ross, the philosophers Socrates and Plato were greatly responsible for the moralization of the Greek gods. The effect of this moralization process is clearly evident in Western religious philosophy: to be religious came to be seen as analogous to being moral. Indeed, religion teaches a particular set of morals according to which adherents are expected to conduct their lives and affairs. Socrates and Plato elevated divinity to a level at which they could not conceive of the gods doing wrong or evil. This connected Greek thought to the morality of religions such as Judaism and Christianity, where a particular moral code is of extreme importance. In this way, the ancient world connects with the contemporary civilization that grew from it, with its gods requiring holiness from their followers.

Religious moralization is not, however, what most sharply distinguishes Greek philosophy from other philosophies of the time, although it does act as an important catalyst for future Western philosophy. One of the distinguishing factors is the economic position of the Greek philosophical centers. According to Ross, the wealth of these centers rested mainly upon trade—a circumstance that positioned the philosophical hub of Greece to adopt a uniquely durable and universal type of philosophy.

As traders, Ross notes, cities such as Miletus and Athens had contact with a variety of different cultures and their philosophies. This exposure allowed them to incorporate a much wider and more universal viewpoint than was possible for other, more self-contained philosophical traditions, such as those of Egypt and Babylonia.

These Greek cities also functioned with a degree of independence greater than that found in other nations, where travel and trade were generally focused on existing agricultural or local productions. This independence was the result of a relative democracy that belonged to Greece well ahead of its time. These democratic Greeks, in their independence and wealth, found themselves free to think not only about life and its immediate concerns, but also about thinking itself—and thus began the sustained practice of philosophy.

The Roman Empire: Ideology and Civic Identity

Like the Greeks, the Roman Empire had a profound effect upon the development of Western civilization. This is exemplified not only in the way Western civilization has constructed itself, but also in the many films, books, and works of fiction that continue to draw on Roman history. In order to understand the reasons for this enduring fascination, the ideology behind the Roman Empire is worth examining closely.

According to Steven Muhlberger, the success of the Roman Empire lay not so much in the ability of its citizens to construct complex intellectual ideas, but rather in their practical abilities and their loyalty toward their community. Specifically, this expressed itself in a combination of factors: the Romans were excellent soldiers, citizens were willing to sacrifice themselves for the common good, and the benefits of citizenship were shared with others. It was therefore a far more inclusive ideology than that of the Greeks, and was at least partly responsible for both the longevity and the success of the Roman Empire prior to its fall.

Muhlberger notes how this inclusivity was exemplified in the Roman treatment of slaves. Slaves were often permitted not only to become free, but also to become citizens. In this way, the Romans created an opportunity for their most capable slaves to work toward freedom, while the Empire itself also benefited. Freed slaves gained citizenship, while Rome gained new taxpayers and soldiers by means other than birth—a system of reciprocal benefit that strengthened the whole.

The importance of Rome for modern study perhaps lies not only in its longevity and military success, but in the character of its achievements. Roman citizens formed a unified whole, working together for the good of the many. This is a phenomenon that appears largely alien to modern civilization. While Romans moved toward a single goal, contemporary society seems so divided on so many issues that genuine unification appears remote. Perhaps it is here that the greatest lessons lie for the contemporary world. Today's governments inspire little loyalty, and wars are fought for many diverse reasons with no clear beneficiaries.

This also accounts for the contemporary fascination with Rome. In addition to being partially obscured by the mists of time, Rome evokes in the modern citizen an image of luxury and collective success that can only be imagined today. Making films and writing books about this era is a form of fantasy—a way of making the dream of unity and achievement feel real, if only briefly. In these ways, Rome and Greece complement each other by virtue of their respective practical and intellectual strengths, and both hold a certain fascination as the cradle of modern citizenship.

Conclusion: Lessons from Greece and Rome

The tragedy of Rome is that it could not maintain what was once a very powerful unified force. While citizens might still have been loyal to Rome and to their citizenship, the emperors appear to have been far less so. They became increasingly irrational and self-interested in their actions, rather than acting as leaders who would sustain and extend Rome's powerful reach across the world. The foundation of Rome's longevity had always been unity, loyalty, and mutual support between citizens and their rulers. When that foundation began to crumble, external pressures ensured that the collapse would eventually be total.

In reflecting on both civilizations, it becomes clear that Western civilization owes an enormous debt to the philosophical creativity of Greece and the civic practicality of Rome. Each tradition contributed something the other lacked, and together they formed the intellectual and institutional bedrock on which the modern world continues to stand.

Sources

Elton, Hugh. "The Collapse of the Roman Empire: Military Aspects." Late Antiquity in the Mediterranean. http://www.nipissingu.ca/department/history/muhlberger/orb/milex.htm

Muhlberger, Steven. "Ideology, Identity, and Empire: The Romans." http://www.nipissingu.ca/department/history/muhlberger/orb/OVC1S6.htm

Ross, Kelly L. "The Origin of Philosophy: Why the Greeks?" http://www.friesian.com/greek.htm#why