Asian American Identity, Stereotypes, and Cultural Resistance

Introduction: Racial Images and Asian Americans

This paper examines the documentary film Rabbit in the Moon alongside several course readings to explore the relationality of racial and ethnic images, including their context, effects, and the resistance they have inspired. The white majority has mainly shaped racial and ethnic images in America. These readings and films show how difficult it was, and still is, to be Asian in America, and how racial stereotypes, images, and misinformation continue to persist in a society that prides itself on democracy, freedom, and social justice.

A self-exploration into one's own racial and ethnic identity cannot ignore the continuing prejudices and misconceptions still prevalent in American society. While America prides herself on multiculturalism and acceptance of people from all lifestyles and cultures, that is not always the reality, as the readings and personal experience clearly indicate.

Yellow Peril and Gook: Origins of Anti-Asian Stereotypes

Two images — or stereotypes — of Asian Americans stand out prominently: the "yellow peril" and the "gook." Both are extremely derogatory terms used especially during World War II against the Japanese and Japanese Americans. The "yellow peril" image stems from Japan's aggressive behavior in Asia and elsewhere before war actually broke out. The Japanese attacked China, made a pact with Hitler and Mussolini, and then attacked Pearl Harbor. Consequently, they appeared determined to dominate their region of the world and would stop at nothing to achieve their goals. They became a "yellow peril" threatening the very fabric of America and American freedoms.

These fears were also rooted in earlier images of the Chinese, who were often described as "wily" or "crafty" — in other words, sneaky — and Americans distrusted all Asians because of these ignorant stereotypes. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, it became easy for Americans to believe that Asians collectively constituted a yellow peril. That suspicion extended to all Asians, regardless of their heritage, length of residence in the United States, or any other circumstances. The Japanese had attacked, and in the minds of many, that made all Asians dangerous.

The "gook" image is closely intertwined with the yellow peril image. If Asians were seen as a peril or menace, they were reduced to the most basic, animalistic image imaginable. "Gooks" were not considered fully human; they were subhuman. This image seemed entirely reasonable to a nation that viewed the Japanese as militant aggressors bent on world domination. As the textbook notes, they were considered an "inferior" race, and derogatory terms such as "gook" only reinforced the idea of their inferiority and aggression.

These very negative stereotypes clearly reflected the fears, concerns, and anxieties of the Euro-American community. The Japanese were cast as violent aggressors with a history of overthrowing nations. U.S. citizens did not value Japanese-American contributions to American society, nor did they recognize their loyalty to their adopted country. The Japanese were seen as inferior — yet not so inferior that they could not wreak havoc on the country if they chose to invade. The attack on Pearl Harbor intensified these fears, creating near hysteria in some areas of the country, especially the West Coast, which was considered most vulnerable to attack. As fears intensified, so did stereotypes and hatred. Some Americans never got over hating the Japanese for the unprovoked attack on Pearl Harbor, just as some Americans will never get over hating Muslims for the attacks on the World Trade Center and Washington, D.C., on September 11, 2001.

Racial stereotypes and images fed these fears, and as men marched off to war and women began working in factories, the atmosphere became even more charged. In their near-hysterical fear of continued attacks, most Americans could not separate the Japanese who had attacked from the Japanese Americans who lived, worked, and cared deeply about their adopted nation. Thus, stereotypes against Japanese Americans and other Asian Americans were reinforced — and even justified — by historical context, including Japanese aggression and the attack on Pearl Harbor.

One lasting prejudice not often mentioned, but one that still exists, is the archaic belief that whites and "Orientals" should not marry. This belief that miscegenation will pollute the white race stems from ignorance, long-held prejudices, and hatred that began in the nineteenth century and was fanned by Japanese aggression in the twentieth. There are thousands, perhaps millions, of children from mixed marriages between whites and Asians in the United States, and most are accepted as Americans. However, many people still cannot or will not accept this mixing of the races, and this only adds to the continuing stereotypes and misunderstandings between whites and other ethnicities in America today.

Effects of Stereotypes: Internment, Policy, and Lasting Prejudice

One of the most concrete effects of both images was a lasting distrust of Asians, even after World War II ended. Japanese and other Asians are still associated with many stereotypes today, though they are somewhat more positive than the images of the war years. Today, Asians are generally seen as overachievers — overly successful, driven, and academically gifted. Because Asian Americans strive to excel in their studies and careers, they often surpass many other groups, and this can cause animosity and friction.

Another very concrete effect of these images was the fear and loathing that swept the nation and led to the internment of Japanese Americans in camps across the country, as depicted in the film Rabbit in the Moon. This basic disregard for civil rights and common decency represented American nativism and state intervention at their very worst. Another wartime policy allowed certain young Japanese men to enlist in the U.S. Army, even while their families remained interned in the camps. Thus, the "gooks" were considered good enough to die for their country, but still not to be trusted within white society.

A very lasting — and largely unwritten — policy is the underrepresentation of Japanese Americans and other Asians in high government positions. Only one Asian American, Norman Mineta, has served in a presidential cabinet, and only a handful serve in state or national elected offices. This persistent prejudice and lack of governmental power affects all Asian Americans. They constitute one of the largest minority groups in the country, yet have very little real representation or political influence. Thus, while they may go unwritten and unspoken, numerous prejudices against Asian Americans persist in America today, and it will take extremely strong measures to overcome them and finally make them disappear.

Another striking governmental failure was the corruption and abuse by high-level officials at the Japanese internment camps, as documented in Rabbit in the Moon. The "sugar scandal," for example, revealed that sugar meant for the camps was being sold on the black market to line the pockets of camp administrators. This was not only unethical and illegal; it was a blatant example of government corruption and prejudice against the Japanese. Because they were regarded as less than human, it followed — in the minds of their oppressors — that they could exist in less than human conditions.

Cultural Pluralism and Personal Identity

America has been multicultural and multiethnic for centuries, yet white Americans remain the majority in most areas, and their ideals, beliefs, and even prejudices dominate society broadly. To fit in, immigrants must assimilate to the predominant way of thinking, acting, and feeling, even when doing so conflicts with their own cultural values and beliefs. They may, in effect, be compelled to practice cultural pluralism — acting one way among their own ethnic community while acting another way in white society.

There are numerous everyday examples of this dynamic. Consider the encounter that Ronald Takaki describes in "A Different Mirror": his family had probably been in the country longer than the cabdriver's, yet the driver viewed Takaki as a "foreigner" simply because of his ethnic appearance. Takaki's essay reveals a wide variety of belief systems confronting all Americans today, and the ongoing struggle to weave many ethnic cultures into a cohesive and coherent whole. Each ethnic group is convinced of its own cultural superiority. This nativism manifests in each group's determination to hold on to as much of its former culture as possible. America may be a "melting pot," but like oil and water, many minorities do not mix, and this prevents America from becoming a true home for all ethnic cultures and beliefs. As long as a majority dominates both the political and private spheres of the country, there can be no genuine equality or true democracy. Takaki's cabdriver anecdote is just one small example of the many struggles between classes and ethnic groups taking place every day, and his essay reveals just how debilitating these struggles can be.

My own identity is a genuine example of cultural plurality. I attend a well-known American college in one of the largest East Coast cities. I speak English at school, write my assignments in English, and still speak my native language with family and many friends. I eat fast food, but often cook my own native dishes as well — rice, seafood, and stir-fry. I miss the aromas of my mother's kitchen, and sometimes wonder how Americans can consume so much greasy, fried beef and chicken while overlooking vegetables and fruits. I live in an American apartment with American furniture, but decorate with traditional artwork and pieces from my homeland, because I genuinely enjoy the clean, elegant lines of Asian furniture and design. I wear American clothes, but keep a traditional silk gown and sandals in my closet for special family occasions. I wear makeup and think nothing of it, but many of my older female relatives disapprove of my Western ways. I am truly a blend of American and Asian, and I want to keep it that way, even if I face difficulties in society because of it.

I do not want to turn my back on my culture in an effort to fully assimilate, as many Japanese Americans did. I find that both sad and degrading. I do not believe anyone should have to surrender everything that makes them who they are in order to settle in another country, and I do not think it is fair to expect or demand it. My family came to this country to build better lives, and they should not be demeaned or forced to change because of that. They should be adaptable, and certainly adopt certain aspects of American culture to help them succeed. For example, I learned English because it is the language spoken here, and it helped me excel at school and in the workplace. I would not expect my home language to be spoken everywhere I shop, work, and study in America. However, I believe that many Americans are resistant to immigrants retaining any part of their own cultures. Many seem to think that the moment I arrived here, I should instantly become a full-fledged American — or that something is wrong with me if I have not. If they were to move to another country, I imagine they would cling to some of their own customs while blending others, yet they do not seem to extend that same understanding to immigrants in their country.

The film In the White Man's Image illustrates this same tension between assimilation and cultural pluralism. When white settlers overtook Native Americans and forced them off their land, they compelled them to accept the white man's ways or suffer the consequences. Native peoples were relocated to reservations far from their ancestral lands, making it impossible to survive as they had before. They were forced to take up agriculture, even if they had never been farmers. Their children were shipped to Indian boarding schools like Captain Richard Pratt's, where they were forced to abandon their native languages, cultures, and beliefs and assimilate into white customs. Pratt's motto was "Kill the Indian and save the man" (In the White Man's Image). Sadly, while this ideology is no longer so blatant, most cultures must still "kill" something of themselves to fit effectively into the still-dominant white mainstream.

America prides herself on openness and acceptance of others, but both the essays and the films reveal a real rift between what American doctrine proclaims and how Americans actually behave. This is not a truly transnational society, no matter what many would like to believe. While many cultures are blended into most American cities, they often do not mix socially, culturally, or societally. That is why so many towns still have Chinatowns, barrios, ghettos, Little Italys, and Jewish community centers. America welcomes almost anyone inside her borders, but once immigrants arrive, they band together to avoid losing themselves and their cultures to the dominant American mainstream.

Conclusion: Being Asian in America

Kermit the Frog says, "It's not easy being green," and it is not easy being Asian in America, either. Ly notes that no matter what he does, he is breaking a mold or a stereotype. I agree entirely. No matter what we do, we will still find ourselves on the fringes of American and Asian society alike. We are, in a sense, caught between worlds — constrained whether we conform or refuse to. Ultimately, we must come to terms with our own identity before we can conform to, or reject, anything else.

I am an Asian American. I have the same dreams, ideals, and ambitions as millions of other young, idealistic Americans. However, because I am Asian, there are additional pressures, expectations, and cultural demands that I must navigate to become successful. I am proud to be an Asian American, but I hope that in the future, Americans can overcome their sense of nativism and extend greater acceptance to the many ethnicities that enrich American culture. You enjoy pizza and dim sum, don't you? Then why can't you accept the people who created them as part of your own ever-changing history and culture?