Bullying and Victimization in Schools: Causes and Consequences

Introduction

Violence in the nation's schools is certainly not a new phenomenon, but the impact of bullying and its effects on the victims involved has received an increasing amount of attention in recent years, following a number of high-profile incidents involving outright multiple murders. To determine the short- and long-term consequences of bullying and victimization in the nation's schools today, this paper provides a review of the relevant peer-reviewed and scholarly literature, followed by a summary of the research and important findings in the conclusion.

By any measure, bullying is a growing concern in America's schools. According to Peskin, Tortolero, and Markham, "Bullying represents a form of aggression and can be classified as either direct or indirect. Direct or overt bullying is defined as both verbal (e.g., name-calling, teasing) and physical (e.g., hitting) incidents; and indirect or relational bullying includes spreading rumors and excluding others from activities" (p. 467). The precise incidence of bullying in the nation's schools remains difficult to determine because definitions and measures used across studies differ dramatically; nevertheless, research from several large-scale studies in midwestern and southeastern U.S. schools indicates that bullying behaviors are common (Espelage & Swearer, 2003).

A growing number of researchers suggest that bullying and victimization must be examined in terms of their individual, family, peer, school, and community contexts (Espelage & Swearer, 2004). In this regard, Espelage and Swearer note that "Bullying and victimization are ecological phenomena that are established and perpetuated over time as the result of the complex interplay between inter- and intra-individual variables. In order to develop and implement effective bullying prevention and intervention programs, we must understand the social ecology that establishes and maintains bullying and victimization behaviors" (2004, p. 1). Although the concept that environmental factors influence bullying and victimization behaviors is not new, the growing body of research in these areas has reinforced the need to examine these violent behaviors from a socio-ecological perspective in order to better understand what compels some young people to aggressively persecute their peers (Espelage & Swearer, 2004).

Review of Empirical Research

In their study "Bullying and Victimization among Black and Hispanic Adolescents," Peskin and colleagues (2006) report that "Researchers began to study bullying and victimization just over 30 years ago. Recent studies have linked victimization to school-related homicidal acts by students" (p. 467). These authors also report that the impact of bullying on victims can be profound, including mental health consequences (i.e., depression, suicidal ideation, anxiety) and physical health problems (e.g., headaches, sleeping difficulties) (Peskin et al.). Interestingly, these researchers note that these adverse impacts are associated with both bullying and victimization (Peskin et al.).

These researchers surveyed students in eight predominantly Black and Hispanic secondary schools — five middle schools and three high schools — in a large urban school district in Texas to determine the prevalence of bullying and victimization. Based on their analysis, Peskin and her associates determined that bullying and victimization are prevalent among urban, low-socioeconomic, Black and Hispanic middle and high school youth. According to these authors, "In this sample, approximately 7% were bullies, 12% were victims, and 5% were bully-victims. The present study revealed a lack of gender variation for general bullying behaviors; however, males were more likely than females to report some specific bullying behaviors (teasing and harassment)" (Peskin et al., p. 468). Male respondents were more likely to report being physically victimized and being ridiculed by others; African-American respondents exhibited bullying and victimization behaviors more frequently than their peers, with such behaviors peaking around ninth grade (Peskin et al.).

The researchers conclude that their findings demonstrate a clear need to formulate more effective interventions to reduce the prevalence of bullying and victimization among urban racial and ethnic minority youth (Peskin et al.). They also determined that although interventions designed to reduce physical bullying should target male students in particular, other initiatives should be directed toward reducing all types of bullying among all students. Furthermore, the researchers emphasize the importance of introducing these interventions as early as possible — preferably in middle school — because bullying behaviors appear to peak as young people begin high school. The results also found that while physical abuse was prevalent, verbal bullying behaviors such as teasing and name-calling were most common. Consequently, Peskin and colleagues recommend that initiatives aimed at reducing these verbal behaviors may represent the best starting point for future interventions. They conclude that "Researchers, as well as parents, teachers, community members, politicians, and health care providers, should continue to acknowledge the serious nature of bullying and victimization among minority youth and begin to develop methods to combat these issues" (p. 468).

The results of a study by Holt, Finkelhor, and Kantor (2007) confirmed the adverse health-related consequences for both victims and perpetrators. These researchers studied 689 fifth-grade students from 22 elementary schools in one school district located in a large northeastern city. The sample was divided almost equally between males and females and reflected the multicultural composition of the larger metropolitan population of approximately 100,000 residents. Using the nine-item University of Illinois Bully Scale, the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire, and 21 items from the Anxious/Depressed and Withdrawn/Depressed scales from the Youth Self-Report, Holt and colleagues found that young people who reported engaging in bullying behaviors were themselves frequently victims of bullying, and had also experienced physical and sexual abuse in the home. In fact, almost a third (32.1%) reported being sexually abused (Holt et al.). A significant percentage (43%) of respondents also reported being bullied and/or victimized outside of school, in the community. Although the respondents were from just one school district — and the findings could not be generalized to all fifth-graders in the United States — the authors suggest that these results emphasize the need for more proactive intervention programs and recommend more thorough investigations of the types of bullying behaviors occurring in individual schools (Holt et al.).

A third study by Bradshaw, Sawyer, and O'Brennan (2007) involved a large-scale school-based investigation of bullying designed to determine the discrepancy between staff and student perceptions of bullying behavior and attitudes toward intervention and retaliation. This study was more ambitious in scope than the foregoing studies, with data collected from 15,185 students (Grades 4–12) and 1,547 school staff members — including teachers, school psychologists, and guidance counselors — at 75 elementary schools, 20 middle schools, and 14 high schools in a large Maryland public school district that included urban (58%), suburban (28%), and rural (15%) schools (Bradshaw et al.). Both student and staff respondents completed web-based surveys that ensured their anonymity.

These researchers determined that almost half (49%) of the students surveyed reported having been bullied by other students at school at least once during the past month, and about a third (30.8%) reported bullying others during that same period (Bradshaw et al.). More than two-thirds of student respondents (70.6%) reported having witnessed bullying behaviors within the last month, and an almost identical percentage of faculty (70.4%) reported witnessing such behaviors during the same timeframe (Bradshaw et al.). One of the more disturbing findings of this study was that a significant percentage of students — more than 10% — reported joining in bullying others when they witnessed such behaviors at school (Bradshaw et al.).

Impact on the Author's Role as an Educator

Students and faculty members alike should be able to expect a learning environment free of violence and intimidating behaviors. Personal observations and experience confirm that bullying behaviors appear to be an inherent part of the maturation process for some young people, yet it remains unclear what compels some students to engage in these behaviors while others from virtually identical backgrounds do not. One of the more salient issues to emerge from the research was the need for more proactive interventions on the part of faculty, administrators, and parents — and it is in this arena that the implications for a more effective educator role became most apparent.

Conclusion

In the past, bullying might have been viewed as a natural part of "growing up," and the problem was often simply ignored or minimized. Given the prevalence of the problem in the nation's schools today, however, this problem can no longer be swept under the rug in the hope that it will solve itself or go away. All students are entitled to attend a school in which the learning environment is free of violence and intimidation, yet the research consistently shows that many young people today dread walking through the schoolhouse doors because of the violence and ridicule that await them there. The research also shows that many of these young people experience both physical and sexual abuse in their own homes, suggesting that no single intervention will address the underlying social problems in isolation — more comprehensive, multifaceted approaches are required.

References

Bradshaw, C. P., Sawyer, A. L., & O'Brennan, L. M. (2007). Bullying and peer victimization at school: Perceptual differences between students and school staff. School Psychology Review, 36(3), 361–363.

Espelage, D. L., & Swearer, S. M. (2004). Bullying in American schools: A social-ecological perspective on prevention and intervention. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Espelage, D. L., & Swearer, S. M. (2003). Research on school bullying and victimization: What have we learned and where do we go from here? School Psychology Review, 32(3), 365.

Holt, M. K., Finkelhor, D., & Kantor, G. K. (2007). Hidden forms of victimization in elementary students involved in bullying. School Psychology Review, 36(3), 345–346.

Peskin, M. F., Tortolero, S. R., & Markham, C. M. (2006). Bullying and victimization among Black and Hispanic adolescents. Adolescence, 41(163), 467–468.