Cross-Cultural Comparison: Latinos and African-Americans

Introduction

The demographic composition of the American population has changed significantly in recent decades, as the percentages of Latinos and African-Americans have increased faster than the general population. As a result, approximately 88 million Americans are currently Latino or African-American, and these rates are expected to continue increasing well into the foreseeable future. Given these trends, it becomes timely and important to gain fresh insights into these cultures.

To this end, this paper reviews the relevant literature to provide descriptions of these two cultures and why they are of interest, as well as a comparison of similarities and differences related to time orientation, communication, physical and mental health, group relationships, and perceptions and measures of intelligence between Latinos and African-Americans and mainstream American culture. In addition, a description of the theoretical framework that guided the analysis of both cultures is followed by an explanation of how each culture influences human development, identity development, and personality development. Finally, an examination of how each culture influences the expression of emotion, the development of morality, gender, aggression, and marital fidelity is followed by a discussion of potential biases that may affect the analysis of these cultures. A summary of the research and important findings is presented in the conclusion.

Descriptions of the Cultures and Why They Matter

For the purposes of this study, the term "Latino" is used interchangeably with "Hispanic," and — notwithstanding some controversy in this area — the term "black" is used interchangeably with "African-American." The two cultures of interest are partly selected because of their sheer size. Approximately 15.1% of the total U.S. population is Hispanic and 12.5% is African-American (American people, 2016), meaning there are approximately 48,773,000 Hispanics and 40,375,000 African-Americans in the United States today.

Given these enormous numbers and the fact that their representation in the larger population continues to grow, these demographic groups will have a significant impact on American society in the future. As Gutierrez and Yeakley (2000) emphasize, "Latinos, people of Latin American descent, will be the largest ethnic minority group in the United States in the 21st century" (p. 541). Notwithstanding their growing presence in the larger American population, Hispanics, like other minority groups, remain marginalized along a number of important social metrics. Hanson and Santas (2014) emphasize that, "Although growing as a proportion of the population, Hispanics tend to live in ethnically isolated areas, in housing units with worse quality, and in neighborhoods with worse public services and more crime than the white majority" (p. 136).

According to the cultural dimensions developed by Hofstede, the mainstream American population is regarded as highly individualistic, and it is reasonable to extend this analysis to the African-American population as well (Montoya & Huang, 2013). This assertion is congruent with research dating back to the first half of the 20th century, when studies confirmed the individualistic nature of the African-American community (Steely, 1934). By contrast, a study by Gutierrez and Yeakley (2000) characterized the Latino population in the United States as more collectivist in nature, marked by "a sense of identity and commitment to collectives and groups, rather than the individual [and] a focus on intergroup and intragroup harmony, with an avoidance of conflict and confrontation" (p. 541). Taken together, it is clear that African-Americans reflect the individualistic characteristics of the larger American population while Latinos remain a comparatively collectivist population, most likely due to their vastly different American experiences.

Comparing Time Orientation, Communication, Health, and Intelligence

Time Orientation

According to Brown (2002), the term "time orientation" refers to the "past, past-future, present, or circular — oriented to changes that recur in nature as opposed to time as measured by watches and calendars" (p. 49). A growing body of research indicates that differences in time orientation can influence occupational choice and other life-altering decisions, and that minorities in the United States tend to have different time orientations than mainstream American society (Brown, 2002). Differences in time orientation can also affect the perception of need for social and health care services (Leavitt, 2006). According to Williams (2005), African-American women tend to experience a more fluid time orientation compared to African-American men and the mainstream American population. Likewise, Gutierrez and Yeakley (2000) found that Latinos tend to have "a flexible time orientation, with an emphasis on the 'here and now' rather than on the future" (p. 541).

Communication

Health care authorities have experienced significant challenges in tailoring effective health-related messages for the urban African-American community (Stroman, 1998). Stroman (1998) advises that "there are culturally distinctive attitudes that serve as barriers to African-Americans receiving health care messages and/or utilizing the health care system" (p. 664). In addition, researchers have found that Hispanics born in the United States tend to experience less frequent communication within their family units, a tendency that contributes to higher incidences of substance abuse (Kelly & Cornello, 2002).

Physical and Mental Health

There are a number of physical and mental health differences that exist among these two minority populations and mainstream American society. A study by Moulton (2009) identified higher rates of organ damage among African-Americans as well as heart disease and stroke resulting from a higher incidence of hypertension. According to Moulton (2009), "African-Americans have an 80% higher rate of stroke mortality, 50% higher rate of heart disease mortality and a 320% greater rate of hypertension-related end-stage renal disease" (p. 166).

African-American women are also at higher risk for obesity and related disorders due to a sedentary lifestyle, and the research to date has identified a number of social constraints to improving their activity levels (Carter-Parker, Edwards, & McCleary-Jones, 2012). Researchers have additionally identified physical and mental health issues that adversely affect homosexual African-American men. A study by Choi, Paul, Ayala, Boylan, and Gregorich (2013) identified higher levels of depression and anxiety among African-American homosexual men compared to mainstream American society, attributable to different sources and types of discrimination experienced by these individuals (Ayala et al., 2013).

Both African-Americans and Hispanics tend to experience disproportionately higher levels of mental health problems following natural disasters (Price, Davidson, Andrews, & Ruggiero, 2013), differences that may be attributable in large part to disparities in health care access compared to mainstream American society. Many African-Americans living in inner-city communities also tend to experience higher levels of stress and insomnia that adversely affect both physical and mental health (Hall-Brown & Melliman, 2014). Furthermore, Hispanics account for higher levels of psychiatric symptomatology and prevalence rates of mental health disorders compared with other ethnic groups (Malgady & Zayas, 2001).

There are also differences between African-Americans and Hispanics regarding human papillomavirus (HPV) immunizations. A study by Thomas and Strickland (2012) found that among Latina immigrants and African-American women living in urban communities, African-American women remained more skeptical about the efficacy of the HPV vaccine compared to Latinas. Male African-Americans were also less aware of HPV infection and vaccination compared to Hispanics and mainstream American society. Another study found low HPV vaccine acceptance among African-American parents because the disease is believed to be associated with sexual promiscuity (Thomas & Strickland, 2012).

Perceptions and Measures of Intelligence

The ability to accurately assess the intelligence of African-American and Hispanic students represents an essential component of the academic process because intelligence measures can serve as indicators of ability (Naglieri & Ronning, 2000). Inaccurate intelligence assessments of African-American and Latino children can result in disproportionate numbers of these young learners being placed in remedial classes and denied opportunities for placement in gifted student programs (Naglieri & Ronning, 2000). Researchers have identified three main factors that account for the majority of differences in intelligence and cognition testing results, as well as academic achievement and socio-emotional problems, among African-Americans: (a) family-level poverty, (b) low socioeconomic status, and (c) residence in less economically advantaged neighborhoods (Jones & Palmer, 2004).

Notwithstanding these factors, other researchers argue that the intelligence tests used for these minority groups were specifically designed to evaluate intelligence among whites, and their use for minority groups inevitably introduces problems in accurately assessing true intelligence levels (Franklin, 2007). These disparities in testing results helped justify segregated schools for decades. Based on the administration of the Binet Intelligence Test to a group of African-American students in Philadelphia in 1910, one sociologist concluded that there were "distinct differences between White and Negro children in all aspects studied, environment (home conditions), school conditions and progress, and in mental and physical manifestations" (cited in Franklin, 2007, p. 217). These findings resulted in recommendations for the continuing separation of African-American public schools and a special curriculum focused on industrial education (Franklin, 2007). In 1913 and 1914, subsequent administrations of the Binet Intelligence Test to African-American students in Philadelphia's public schools resulted in separate African-American public schools remaining in place until 1934 (Franklin, 2007).

Theoretical Framework: Theory of Planned Behavior

The theory of planned behavior developed by Ajzen (1980) provides a useful theoretical framework for analyzing Latino and African-American cultures because it focuses on how individuals from these two cultures can reasonably be expected to behave within and outside their own cultural contexts (Pickett & Ginsburg, 2012). For example, Carter-Parker, Edwards, and McCleary-Jones (2012) used the theory of planned behavior to evaluate the correlates of physical activity among African-American women who are physically active and those who are not.

The overarching tenet of the theory of planned behavior is the individual's intention to behave in a certain fashion (Prieto, Phipps, & Friedrich, 2012). From this perspective, individual intentions are assumed to reflect the motivational factors that tend to influence behavior. In sum, individual intentions "are indications of how hard people are willing to try, of how much of an effort they are planning to exert, in order to perform the behavior" (Prieto et al., 2012, p. 2). Therefore, the likelihood of performing a specific behavior is directly related to the strength of the intention to perform that behavior. The theory uses three determinants of intention:

1. The person's attitude — conceptualized as the overall evaluation, either positive or negative, of performing the behavior of interest;

2. Subjective norm — which reflects perceived social pressure to perform or not perform the behavior; and

3. Perceived behavioral control — which reflects the extent to which the behavior is perceived to be under volitional control (perceived behavioral control has been argued to indirectly affect behavior via intentions and/or have a direct effect on behavior) (Prieto et al., 2012, p. 2).

Conclusion

It would be unreasonable to conclude, based on the differences between Hispanics and African-Americans and mainstream American society, that these groups are so fundamentally different as to exist in a separate world. Indeed, many, if not most, members of the Latino and African-American populations are virtually indistinguishable from the mainstream American population except in terms of physical appearance. The research was consistent in demonstrating, however, that meaningful differences do exist across the dimensions of time orientation, communication, physical and mental health, group relationships, and perceptions and measures of intelligence.

The theory of planned behavior provides a useful framework for analyzing and evaluating the implications of these similarities and differences by explaining how each culture influences human development, identity development, and personality development. Both African-Americans and Hispanics were shown to suffer from higher incidences of mental health problems compared to mainstream American society, and African-Americans — especially males — are at far higher risk for a wide range of adverse health outcomes. African-American women are also at higher risk for many of these disorders due to higher levels of obesity attributed to a sedentary lifestyle. Both Hispanic and African-American males were shown to experience pressure to avoid demonstrations of emotion and to solve problems independently without resorting to outside assistance.

Conversely, there were significant differences between African-Americans and Hispanics in terms of individualism versus collectivism: the former reflects the individualistic orientation of the broader American population while the latter maintains a more collectivist worldview. Identifying opportunities to help mitigate the impact of these differences on the health and welfare of these populations remains constrained, however, by potential biases on the part of researchers who may attribute observed differences to longstanding stereotypes and prejudices rather than to structural and systemic factors.

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